Research Articles

This study focused on cellulose nanowhiskers (CNWs) isolation using a combination of acid hydrolysis and high pressure homogenization, and investigated the effects of acid concentration (20, 40, and 60 wt%), hydrolysis temperature (20, 40, and 60 oC), and hydrolysis time (2, 4, and 6 h) on the geometry and chemical properties. After the combined treatment, nanoparticles were rodlike with a diameter of 11 to 33 nm, a length of 199 to 344 nm, and aspect ratio of 10 to 18, which are characteristic properties of CNWs. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses showed that some breakages of intramolecular hydrogen bonds and glycosidic bonds occurred during the hydrolysis reaction of MCC. An increase in acid concentration from 20 to 60 wt% could effectively accelerate these breakages in cellulose molecules, leading to narrower, less polydisperse nanowhiskers with lower crystallinity.

There is an increasing demand for green chemistry technologies that can cope with environmental waste management challenges. Agro-industrial residues are primarily composed of complex polysaccharides that support microbial growth for the production of industrially important enzymes such as ligninolytic enzymes. Schyzophyllum commune and Ganoderma lucidum were used alone, as well as mixed/co-culture, to produce crude ligninolytic enzymes extracts using corn stover and banana stalk as a substrate during solid state fermentation (SSF). In the initial screening, the extracted ligninolytic enzymes from S. commune produced using corn stover as the substrate showed higher activities of lignin peroxidase (1007.39 U/mL), manganese peroxidase (614.23 U/mL), and laccase (97.47 U/mL) as compared to G. lucidum and the mixed culture. To improve the production of ligninolytic enzymes by S. commune with solid state fermentation (SSF), physical factors such as pH, temperature, moisture, inoculum size, and incubation time were optimized by varying them simultaneously using response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite design (CCD). The optimum SSF conditions were (for a 5 g corn stover substrate size): pH = 4.5; temperature = 35°C; inoculum size = 4 mL; and moisture content = 60%. Under optimum conditions, the activities of lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), and laccase were 1270.40, 715.08, and 130.80 IU/mL, respectively.

The aim of this work was to develop a suitable bioprocess to maximize productionof second generation bio-ethanol in submerged fermentation by using fermentable sugars derived from oil palm frond (OPF) through the solid state fermentation (SSF) system. The strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae was selected, and fermentation conditions were refined at the laboratory scale. Following optimization of inoculums size of S. cerevisiae and concentration of fermentable sugars (growth medium), yields of ethanol production as high as 23.10 g/ L were obtained, compared to 5.61 g/L before optimization. S. cerevisiae cells were able to assimilate the majority of the fermentable sugars from OPF. The results demonstrated that the culture conditions in fermentation process can significantly influence the ethanol yield in the flask system by using fermentable sugars obtained from the enzyme hydrolysis of OPF as fermentation medium.

Bamboo is a very interesting bio resource for building materials because of its combination of strength properties and low density. However, its susceptibility to fungi and insects is problematic. Thermal modification is used in Vietnam to improve the durability and dimensional stability of bamboo. Changes in the chemical composition during this modification are the reason for such physical changes as color, equilibrium moisture content, and strength. This paper will describe the changes in the chemical composition depending on the modification conditions. Furthermore correlations between chemical composition and physical properties, which are presented in Part I, are shown.

Native galactoglucomannans (GGMs), which were isolated from thermomechanical pulping waters of Norway spruce, were modified through cationization, carboxymethylation, and imination at the reducing end with a primary long-chain hydrocarbon amine. The derivatives were tested for their papermaking properties. The native GGMs increased the wet tensile strength as a result of the dispersion of fibrils in the wet fibre web. In wood-containing paper, GGMs increased the retention of fines and extractives without a decrease in paper strength. The GGMs also flocculated fillers effectively. The cationic GGMs were able to interact between fibrous fine material and fibres, as well as with fillers. Therefore, an electrostatic mechanism of action is suggested. Carboxymethylated GGMs are believed to bind to fibres and fines through divalent metal ions present in wood. For the amphiphilic amine-modified GGMs, the alkane chain attached to the reducing end appeared to play a key role. The tail was orientated towards the hydrophobic particles; the resulting paper was the most hydrophilic, since the hydrophobic particles were covered with the polysaccharide. Based on the present results, it can be concluded that galactoglucomannans can be modified to yield new and interesting functionalities to wet-end additives for papermaking and other purposes.

The aim of this research was to study the physical and chemical properties of fly ashes from combustion process and carbon residue from gasification process whilst comparing the results between these two types of solid residues, as well as against literature values. Ashes from the combustion process and carbon residue from gasification process are formed in different conditions, and it can be assumed that they will be best suited to contrasting utilization applications. The most notable differences between these types of solid residues were that the carbon content and loss-on-ignition value was higher for gasification carbon residue, and the liming capacity was higher for combustion ashes. The calculated liming capacity for combustion ashes and the fact that these ashes were strongly alkaline, together with high nutrient concentrations, indicate that combustion ashes can provide a liming effect. As a result, these ashes could potentially be utilized as a soil conditioning agent to substitute for commercial lime. The carbon content in gasification carbon residue was high which indicates, together with high porosity, that carbon residue would be an ideal sorbent and it could also be used as a fuel.

Paper sludge was pyrolyzed to synthesize an adsorbent for ionic dyes. Two reagents, Methylene Blue (MB) and Procion Red MX-5B (PR), were chosen as adsorbates. Pyrolysis of paper sludge was conducted at 600°C for 1 h under a nitrogen atmosphere, and the carbonized sample was washed with 1 M HCl for 30 min to remove inorganic salts (such as calcium) and to increase the carbon content. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging showed that the particle size of the pyrolyzed paper sludge was obviously reduced when the acid-washing process was applied. Additionally, the specific surface area had increased from 13.25 to 193.86 m2/g. The isoelectric point was around pH 3, which meant the adsorbent revealed positive charge to adsorb anionic dye (PR) when pH was below 3. On the other hand, cationic dye (MB) was adsorbed well under high pH values because of the negative surface charge of the adsorbent. The Langmuir equation was adopted to determine maximum absorption capacity. For MB and PR, the maximum absorption capacities were 119.05 mg/g and 65.79 mg/g, respectively. The adsorption kinetic study revealed that MB and PR adsorptions fit the pseudo-second-order kinetic model well. The activation energies for MB and PR were 12.32 kJ/mol and 2.88 kJ/mol, respectively. The results presented indicate that paper sludge can be pyrolyzed to form a dye adsorbent for cationic and anionic dyes.

Carbonyl and carboxyl groups are important components of bleached cellulosic pulp due to their significant effect on the mechanisms that cause paper aging. Pulp yellowing and the decrease in cellulose molecular weight during aging are usually linked to these two functional groups. Carbonyl groups initiate oxidative processes, but their effects are largely increased when carboxyl groups are also present in the pulp. This work presents an automated potentiometric method for quantitative determination of carboxyl groups in bleached kraft pulp. The results obtained were compared with those obtained by the TAPPI (T 237 om-93) standard method using the same samples. A good correlation (r = 0.9956) was observed between the methods, where the automated potentiometric titration method is most attractive due to its simplicity of execution and a shorter time required for the analysis. This method can be easily applied to quality control of a large number of samples in an industrial environment.

Modification of sodium lignosulfonate (SLS) via combined oxidation-sulfomethylation was employed to prepare concrete superplasticizer. It was found that the oxidation of SLS by peroxyacetic acid facilitated the subsequent sulfomethylation. After modification, both the molecular weight and sulfo group content were significantly increased, and thus the performance of SLS as water reducer was improved. With the water to cement ratio at 0.4 and 0.3% (w/w) modified SLS, the fluidity of cement paste could reach 185 mm, which was 15% higher than that with unmodified SLS. It was also comparable to the performance of commercial naphthalene superplasticizer under the same conditions.

The polymerization kinetics of furfuryl alcohol in wood veneer were studied using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and were compared with weight gains of treated wood veneers. Maleic anhydride was used as the reaction initiator. DSC data were obtained for samples of the veneers that had been impregnated with neat furfuryl alcohol or with furfuryl alcohol diluted with ethanol, and using two ratios of maleic anhydride to furfuryl alcohol. The high ratio of maleic anhydride to furfuryl alcohol (1:9) favoured rapid polymerization at a lower temperature, whereas the lower ratio (1:19) resulted in a relatively slower rate of polymerization, which required higher temperatures to affect the reaction. A higher temperature also led to an increase in furfuryl alcohol evaporation from the prepared veneers. The DSC data was compared with data obtained from furfuryl alcohol impregnated wood veneers but without the addition of maleic anhydride. DSC data is in good agreement with weight percentage gains (WPGs) obtained for samples impregnated with differently composed solutions. While higher maleic anhydride contents led to higher WPGs, ethanol dilution inhibits polymer formation, resulting in lower WPG.