Soy-lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. as a bio-based phantom: Impact of adhesives on attenuation

Abstract

The feasibility of utilising soy-lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. wood was investigated as a sustainable, bio-based phantom material for radiation dosimetry applications. Various samples with differing thicknesses and adhesive compositions were prepared to evaluate the consistency and reliability of the material’s attenuation properties. The experimental assessment was conducted using two standard gamma-emitting radioisotopes, Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137, to encompass a range of photon energies relevant to medical radiation applications. Monte Carlo simulations were performed using the GATE platform to compute the linear and mass attenuation coefficients. The study evaluates the impact of adhesives on attenuation behaviour. The lowest overall attenuation variation of 0.06 to 1.40% was observed in the soy–lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. at a particle size of 104 to 210 µm with the addition of 6 and 12% adhesives, suggesting that changes in adhesive content do not appreciably affect the attenuation behaviour, demonstrating its potential as a bio-based phantom material in radiation study.

Full Article

Soy-lignin Bonded Rhizophora spp. as a Bio-based Phantom: Impact of Adhesives on Attenuation

Usha R. Baskaran,^a Saadiatul Nur Aqilah Mohd Zakaria,^a Siti Hajar Zuber  ,^a,*

Muhammad Fahmi Rizal Abdul Hadi,^b Nurul Ab. Aziz Hashikin,^b and

Muhammad Safwan Ahmad Fadzil ^a

The feasibility of utilising soy-lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. wood was investigated as a sustainable, bio-based phantom material for radiation dosimetry applications. Various samples with differing thicknesses and adhesive compositions were prepared to evaluate the consistency and reliability of the material’s attenuation properties. The experimental assessment was conducted using two standard gamma-emitting radioisotopes, Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137, to encompass a range of photon energies relevant to medical radiation applications. Monte Carlo simulations were performed using the GATE platform to compute the linear and mass attenuation coefficients. The study evaluates the impact of adhesives on attenuation behaviour. The lowest overall attenuation variation of 0.06 to 1.40% was observed in the soy–lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. at a particle size of 104 to 210 µm with the addition of 6 and 12% adhesives, suggesting that changes in adhesive content do not appreciably affect the attenuation behaviour, demonstrating its potential as a bio-based phantom material in radiation study.

DOI: 10.15376/biores.21.2.3394-3416

Keywords: Rhizophora spp.; Attenuation coefficient; Monte Carlo; GATE; Phantom; Bio-based

Contact information: a: Centre for Diagnostic, Therapeutic and Investigative Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 50300, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; b: School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia; *Corresponding author: hajarzuber@ukm.edu.my

INTRODUCTION

Mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora spp. are key components of coastal, tropical, and subtropical sedimentary ecosystems (Stocken et al. 2022). Rhizophora spp. grows in Malaysia’s coastal tidal plains, and with the country being the third-largest mangrove holder, the species is readily accessible for research purposes (Zuber et al. 2020). Since the 1980s (Zuber et al. 2021b; Tousi and Sadeghi 2024), mangrove wood has been extensively regarded as a phantom material due to its special qualities, including renewability, biodegradability, low toxicity, availability, low cost, and ease of fabrication. Additionally (Zuber et al. 2021a; Tousi and Sadeghi 2024), the density of wood closely approximates that of human tissues and water, rendering it highly suitable for use as a tissue-equivalent phantom material. Rhizophora spp. was first identified as a potential phantom material in a study by Sudin et al. (1988). Since then, growing research interest has focused on evaluating the suitability of natural wood as a phantom material capable of simulating the interaction of human soft tissue with ionising radiation (Bradley et al. 1991; Sudin et al. 1988). In these studies, twenty-five different wood species were investigated in terms of mass density and photon attenuation properties to assess their compliance with soft tissue equivalency requirements. The findings demonstrated that Rhizophora spp. possesses an optimal mass density of approximately 1040 kg·m⁻³, with effective linear and mass attenuation coefficients at a photon energy of 59.54 keV. These encouraging results prompted further investigations into the radiographic imaging and scattering characteristics of Rhizophora spp. (Tajuddin et al. 1996). Furthermore, raw Rhizophora spp. also demonstrates excellent scattering and radiographic properties (Tousi and Sadeghi 2024).

In radiation studies, a phantom is a specially designed object that mimics the radiation absorption and scattering properties of human tissue, playing a crucial role in the development, dosimetry (Zuber et al. 2021a; Abdi et al. 2025; Khoshhal and Torshabi 2024), and quality assurance of imaging and therapeutic procedures. Phantoms allow for safe and repeatable experiments without exposing patients to unnecessary radiation, making them indispensable for dosimetry calibration, treatment planning verification, and imaging system evaluation. They are used to simulate various anatomical regions, ensuring accurate dose delivery and image quality. The importance of phantoms lies not only in their ability to improve clinical safety and precision but also in supporting the advancement of new radiation technologies through consistent and ethical testing frameworks.

Phantom materials are artificial alternatives with similar mass attenuation coefficients and effective atomic numbers that are intended to mimic human tissues. Phantoms can be fabricated from a wide range of materials, including polymers, gels, plastics, and biological tissues. In medical physics (Buyukyildiz et al. 2024), phantoms are widely used to mimic radiation interactions with human tissues in both therapeutic and diagnostic imaging applications. In radiotherapy, phantoms are used for device calibration and performance evaluation, pre-treatment dose estimation, image quality assessment in modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), and the development and validation of radiation treatment plans.

Phantoms are essential in radiological imaging because they replicate the behavior of human tissues and organs, accurately reflecting their physical and radiological properties for scientific research. Therefore, selecting appropriate materials is crucial to guarantee that a phantom functions as intended (Khallouqi et al. 2024; Almalki et al. 2024). Previous literature reported the assessment of epoxy and polyester resins as substitutes for polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) in CT dosimetry phantoms (Khallouqi et al. 2024). GEANT4/GATE simulations were used to calculate the mass attenuation coefficients. The findings show that polyester resin has radiological characteristics more similar to PMMA. According to another publication, gelatin samples were prepared with densities in range from 1.04 to 1.08 g·cm^-3, closely matching human tissue (Almalki et al. 2024). Comparison with XCOM breast tissue data indicated higher gelatin concentrations suitable for breast tissue simulation.

Another study presented the simulations of -ray transmission through tissue-equivalent solid phantoms using medical radionuclide sources, ^99mTc, ¹³¹I, ¹³⁷Cs, and ⁶⁰Co (Moradi et al. 2019). The results show that transmitted photon spectra for water, soft tissue, breast, brain, and lung phantoms are largely independent of material composition, whereas bone exhibits distinct spectral differences, primarily due to density effects. Previous literature also reported the water equivalency of several solid phantom materials, A-150, PMMA, Polystyrene, Solid Water (RMI 457), Solid Water (RW3), Virtual Water, Solid Water (WT1) and Water Equivalent (Wte) solid phantoms, and these samples were investigated by calculating kerma coefficients (Abdi et al. 2025). Solid Water (RMI 457) was identified as the most optimal material, confirming its applicability in radiology and radiotherapy quality assurance.

To ensure consistency and accuracy in radiation dose delivery, quality assurance (QA) procedures are conducted using phantoms that mimic the human body. These tests assess radiation attenuation (Zuber et al. 2022a, 2024a,b), dose distribution, and image accuracy. However, the choice of phantom material is crucial, as it affects attenuation coefficient consistency and may introduce impurities, increasing uncertainties. Recent studies explore the development and comparison of solid and water-based solid phantoms, but practical challenges and potential invalid results make their creation difficult. Consequently, plastic-based solid phantoms, such as the RANDO and ATOM phantom, which is made from Perspex, continue to be widely used in radiotherapy, even though they are often criticised for being non-personalised, expensive, and not easily accessible (Scalzetti et al. 2008; Silberstein and Sun 2024). Previous literature reported that while some materials have optimal properties as phantoms, others such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE) differ significantly, which can lead to inaccuracies in dose delivery if not carefully considered (Kanematsu et al. 2013).

Recent studies involving the use of natural materials have shown encouraging results, and there are continuing efforts to explore their potential as viable alternatives (Marashdeh et al. 2012; Yusof and Fahmi 2017; Yusof et al. 2018, 2017; Abd Hamid et al. 2018; Samson et al. 2020a,b,c, 2023; Zuber et al. 2020, 2022b, 2025). Rhizophora spp. has gained interest due to its physical and radiological properties, which are similar to human tissue. An article states that powdered Eremurus spp. root was used as a bio-based adhesive to bond Rhizophora spp. particleboard samples at two treatment levels, 6% and 12%. The simulated and theoretical mass attenuation coefficients of all the particleboards closely matched those of young breast tissue, consistent with previous experimental findings. The effective atomic number (Z_eff) of the Rhizophora spp. particleboard phantom is increased by adding powdered Eremurus spp. root as a bio-based adhesive (Tousi et al. 2022). Thus, apart from consideration of the characteristics displayed by the phantom, the adhesive of the material binding also needs to be considered to prevent impurity formation within the phantom.

Monte Carlo GATE (Buvat and Lazaro 2006; Thiam et al. 2008; Grevillot et al. 2011; Jan et al. 2011; Sadoughi et al. 2014; Sarrut et al. 2022, 2014; Benameur et al. 2023; Nasr et al. 2024), including the GATE 4 version, is a highly reliable tool in medical physics and radiation studies. It is known for its ability to precisely simulate how particles interact with complex structures in the body. Its biggest strength lies in its accuracy, with studies showing it can calculate doses within 1% of actual measurements, while other systems may have deviations of 3% to 5%, making GATE a trusted choice for radiation studies (Park et al. 2021). According to a previous literature, it was demonstrated that the linear and mass attenuation coefficients of soy – lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. particleboard at low photon energies, as determined by GATE simulations, were in close agreement with the experimental measurements, with the smallest deviation being 0.3%. Overall, the results indicate good consistency between the simulation and experimental data, demonstrating GATE as an appropriate tool for validating attenuation coefficient measurements of bio-based phantom materials for application in medical physics (Zuber et al. 2024a).

This work evaluated the mass attenuation coefficient of phantom material at different percentages of adhesives using Monte Carlo GATE. The attenuation coefficient was determined by analysing different Rhizophora spp. samples with varying elemental compositions. The consistency and reliability of the calculated attenuation coefficients were evaluated using ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs gamma-ray sources.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this work, particleboards were fabricated using Rhizophora spp. wood, incorporating three different percentages of soybean flour and lignin as an adhesive mixture. Rhizophora spp. wood was collected from a mangrove factory in Perak. The wood trunk was dried and cut into a smaller size using a saw machine. Then, the wood was ground onto smaller particles which later sieved into three different particle sizes. The wood particles were dried before they were mixed with adhesive. For adhesive, soybean flour (type I) and lignin (alkali, low sulfonate content) in powder form were purchased from Sigma Aldrich, Germany, and used as received. For the fabrication process, the particleboards were prepared by using hot pressing at approximately 200 ℃, with pressure of 20 MPa for about 20 minutes at a target density of 1 g·cm^-3. The adhesives were prepared according to the calculation as shown in Eq. 1,

 (1)

where ρ, M, and V are density (g·cm^-3), mass (g), and volume (cm³) of the particleboard, respectively. Parameters M_R, W_R%, and MC%_R are the approximate mass (g), weight percentage (%), and moisture content (%L) of Rhizophora spp. powder. The parameters M_S, W_S%, and MC%_S are the approximate mass (g), weight percentage (%), and moisture content (%L) of soybean flour. Parameters M_L, W_L%, and MC%_L are the approximate mass (g), weight percentage (%), and moisture content (%L) of lignin. Parameter M_W is the approximate mass (g) of saline water. Table 1 lists the fractional weight of Rhizophora spp., whereas Table 2 records the particle size and adhesive content for each sample. Table 3 lists the particleboard manufacturing condition.

Table 1. Fractional Weight of Rhizophora spp.

Table 2. Particle Size and Adhesive Content for Each Sample

Table 3. Particleboard Manufacturing Condition

This work is a simulation study that measures the potential of bio-based Rhizophora phantom through the consistency of the mass attenuation coefficient and uncertainties measurement for the impurity presence using Monte Carlo GATE. GATE was used to measure the linear and mass attenuation coefficient of the phantom material using two different sources, ¹³⁷Cs was evaluated at its principal photon energy of 0.662 MeV, while ⁶⁰Co was analysed using an effective photon energy of 1.25 MeV. A total of nine samples with different elemental compositions were analysed through X-ray fluorescence (XRF; Panalytical Axios Max; PANalytical, Malvern, UK) analysis using the Omnian method from the Centre for Global Archeological Research Earth Material Characterisation Laboratory, Universiti Sains Malaysia. The elemental composition data is included in Appendix A as supplementary data.

For Monte Carlo GATE, a custom-built personal computer (PC) with INTEL Core I9 14900K 24 Cores, 32 Threads, and a 3.2 GHz LGA1700 Processor was utilised with an Ubuntu 22.04.4 LTS operating system (OS). GATE v9.4 including the Geant4 v11.2.1 and Root v6.28/12 platforms were used in this simulation work to generate the geometry of the energy transmission experimental setup. However, to ensure the code can be run anytime without using the main PC, the usage of TeamViewer and Anydesk application acted as a remote system to obtain the result and ease in conducting data analysis without requiring additional extension.

In this work, the thickness for every sample was set at 1.0964 cm, 2.0964 cm, 3.0964 cm, and 4.0964 cm, at 1.0 g·cm^-3 target density, in geometry.mac. Two different sources (⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs) were used in this simulation study with specific energy spectrum listed in source.mac and main.mac. For this study, a number of 10⁴ histories were used to run the simulation. Figure 1 illustrates the command script in physics.mac, whereas Fig. 2 lists the command script in main.mac.

Fig. 1. The file of physics.mac that states the interaction in GATE

Fig. 2. The main.mac file that comprises the beam, materials, number of primaries, and the code for running visualisation, initialisation, and output

Upon updating the file and linking it to main.mac, the data were run using the command Gate mac/main.mac. The command read the main.mac script, which includes codes for the element samples, materials, and beam sources. These codes were executed through a terminal in the main transmission file to ensure proper detection of required or blocked codes. It also ensured that the results were recorded in an output file, which was further divided into detector and scattered detector data.

The presence of the scattered radiation and the amount of radiation directed from the source to the receptor could be displayed using the command of Gate mac/main.mac –qt. The data were analysed using the detector.txt file in the output, rather than the detector_scatter.txt file, as the study focused on measuring the attenuation of ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs sources through the sample. This process was repeated for each sample to determine the attenuation. Figures 3 through 5 illustrate the attenuation simulation and setup in GATE.

Fig. 3. The command Gate mac/main.mac –qt for visualisation

Fig. 4. The general attenuation setup in GATE

Fig. 5. The visualisation of the setup using sample A0 for the thickness of 4.0964 cm using ⁶⁰Co

The photon attenuation properties of the samples were analysed using the Beer-Lambert law. Based on the results, the data for each sample and source were plotted on a graph for the calculation of the linear attenuation coefficient using Eq. 2,

 (2)

where and are the incident and transmitted photon intensities (count per second), ( is the linear attenuation coefficient of the material, and is the thickness (cm) of the samples. This principle forms the basis for evaluating the gamma ray shielding effectiveness of materials (Kaya 2025; Abdalla et al. 2022). To account for material density, the density-independent mass attenuation coefficient was employed:

 (3)

In Eq. 3, is the thickness that represented in the material’s unit area mass . For composites containing multiple elements or compounds, the effective mass attenuation coefficient was calculated using the mixture rule:

 (4)

where w_i denotes the weight fraction of the i^th component and  is the mass attenuation coefficient, which can be determined from the relation,

 (5)

where A_i is the atomic weight and a_i is the number of atoms of element i in the compound. The effective atomic number (Z_eff) of the sample was calculated as:

 (6)

Finally, the half-value layer (HVL), representing the thickness required to reduce the incident radiation intensity by 50% was derived directly from the Beer-Lambert law:

 (7)

Collectively, these expressions allow a complete assessment of gamma-ray attenuation in both pure and composite phantom materials, providing insight into their shielding efficiency.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this work, the results were compiled into a table to compare the consistency of linear and mass attenuation coefficients with the addition of different percentages of adhesives. Graphs of the mass attenuation coefficient versus sample thickness was plotted to examine the linearity of ln(I₀/I) from the experiment, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Tables 4 and 5 record the linear and mass attenuation coefficient of samples using ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs.

Fig. 6. The mass attenuation from all samples irradiated with ⁶⁰Co

The results indicate that samples A0 and C6 exhibited slightly higher mass attenuation coefficients (0.18 cm²/g) compared to other samples (0.17 cm²/g). The linear attenuation coefficients were consistent across all samples and closely followed the ideal ln(I₀/I) relationship. Most graphs demonstrated strong linear correlations with R-values around 0.98, confirming reliable linearity. A minor deviation was observed for sample C6, with an R-value of 0.97, which did not significantly affect the overall trend. Slight slope variations were observed in samples A6, B0, and B6 at certain thicknesses, nevertheless, their deviations did not affect the overall consistency of the mass attenuation coefficient under ⁶⁰Co irradiation.

Fig. 7. The mass attenuation from all samples irradiated with ¹³⁷Cs

Table 4. Linear and Mass Attenuation Coefficient of Samples Using ⁶⁰Co

Table 5. Linear and Mass Attenuation Coefficient of Samples Using ¹³⁷Cs

The mass attenuation coefficients of samples A0, C0, and C12 were slightly higher (0.13 cm²/g) than those of the other samples (0.12 cm²/g). Overall, all samples had linear attenuation coefficients that closely matched the ideal ln ( relationship. The graph demonstrated strong linear correlations with R-values ranging from 0.98 to 0.99. The slope appeared slightly steeper than the ideal linear graph in samples measured at thicknesses between 1.094 cm and 2.0964 cm; however, these minor deviations did not compromise the overall linearity or consistency of the mass attenuation coefficient under ¹³⁶Cs irradiation.

Based on Fig. 8, the mass attenuation coefficient using ⁶⁰Co at 1.25 MeV was presented in the higher range from 0.17 to 0.18 cm²/g, while ¹³⁷Cs displayed a value with a range between 0.12 and 0.13 cm²/g. Each of the samples displayed a consistent value that was within the range using respective sources. For the sample with a particle size of 211 to 500 µm (Sample A), the inclusion of adhesive resulted in disparities ranging from 1.38% to 4.05% compared with the formulation without adhesive. For the sample with a particle size of 104 to 210 µm (Sample B), the addition of adhesive led to smaller differences, ranging from 0.06% to 1.40%. In contrast, the sample with a particle size of 0 to 103 µm (Sample C) exhibited discrepancies between 0% and 6.18% upon the incorporation of adhesive, relative to the non-adhesive formulation. Among the three samples, Sample B (104 to 210 µm) demonstrated the lowest overall variation, indicating greater compositional stability and more uniform interaction between particles and adhesive. This demonstrates minimal disparity across different adhesive percentages, indicating that varying the adhesive percentage has a negligible effect on the attenuation.

To ensure the validity of the result, a comparison with a recent study was conducted that focuses more towards consistency of formation, material adhesive bonding, and impurity content. Previous literature reported the adhesion and purity of the material involving the attenuation consistency using an epoxy-based breast phantom at lower photon energy from 16.65 and 25.21 keV (Marashdeh and Abdulkarim 2023). The finding reported a slight increase in the linear attenuation coefficient with the addition of Carbopol 974p polymer. This increase may be attributed to the presence of different atomic numbers (Z) within Carbopol 974p, although μ and μ/ρ values did not change significantly with changes to the ratio of Carbopol polymer. The varying atomic numbers enhance the probability of photon interactions with gamma rays, thereby contributing to the observed rise in attenuation.

Fig. 8. The mass attenuation coefficient of all samples for both sources

Another article was reviewed based on tissue-equivalent material used in imaging and radiotherapy. A study conducted in 2020 focused on tissue-mimicking materials (TMM) and explored various modalities, including the latest machine developments and combinations like MRI with CT scans. The study concluded that the attenuation coefficient for tissue-mimicking materials generally falls within the range of 0.14 to 0.18 cm²/g (McGarry et al. 2020). Building on these results, the consistency in attenuation coefficients observed here shows that the changes in adhesive percentages did not seem to affect the material’s attenuation properties. This suggests that the adhesive used in Rhizophora spp. does not introduce any impurities that could interfere with how the material interacts with radiation. The Rhizophora spp. samples showed steady attenuation values, ranging from 0.17 to 0.18 cm²/g for ⁶⁰Co and 0.12 to 0.13 cm²/g for ¹³⁷Cs, revealing that no heavy elements, such as lead or barium, were present. However, future studies should investigate the formulation of specific adhesives that might impact attenuation, especially because slight variations could arise. This further research would help refine the material’s performance, ensuring it remains reliable for dosimetry and imaging in large-scale applications.

Previous work also demonstrates that dispersion and grain size of the added particulates may have a great impact on attenuation performance of the raw material–additives composite (Azeez et al. 2013). When particulates are not evenly dispersed, the resulting inhomogeneities can reduce the material’s ability to attenuate radiation effectively. Such inconsistencies can negatively impact the overall capability of the composite. However, the consistency in attenuation coefficients observed in this work indicates that varying the adhesive percentages did not significantly influence the material’s attenuation behavior. This suggests that the adhesive used with Rhizophora spp. neither alters the microstructural uniformity nor introduces impurities that could interfere with photon interactions, thereby maintaining the radiation attenuation properties of the composite regardless of adhesive concentration. Another study compared theoretical values with computational evaluations of the attenuation properties of polymers and found that, although the actual results of these theoretically derived examples may vary, the discrepancies that are likely influenced by factors, such as material homogeneity, density, and impurities, are generally expected to remain minimal (Elmalı et al. 2025).

Elmalı et al. (2025) also highlighted that geometric modelling can be applied to estimate the expected performance of composites prior to production, allowing material savings while effectively representing system behaviour with minimal projection requirements (Elmalı et al. 2025). The study further emphasised the significant role of various computer programs in advancing materials science and supporting the evaluation of innovative approaches. Present work employs Monte Carlo simulations using the GATE platform to compute the linear and mass attenuation coefficients of the materials. Similar to geometric modelling, the Monte Carlo–based GATE (Sarrut et al. 2014; Langer et al. 2020; Karimipourfard et al. 2022; Sarrut et al. 2022; Sarrut et al. 2025) approach provides a cost-effective and reliable means to represent system behaviour, enabling accurate evaluation of radiation interaction without the need for extensive experimental trials. This highlights the broader importance of computational tools in materials research, where they not only reduce resource consumption but also offer precise insights into the attenuation properties of innovative composites.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The soy-lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. at particle size of 104 to 210 µm (Sample B) exhibited the lowest overall attenuation variation of 0.06 to 1.40%, with the addition of 6 and 12% adhesives, demonstrates that variations in adhesive content do not significantly influence the material’s attenuation behaviour.
2. GATE emerges as potential computational tools in evaluating attenuation properties of developed materials especially in radiation study.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2024/STG07/UKM/02/4) from the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Geran Galakan Penyelidik Muda (GGPM-2023-027).

USE OF GENERATIVE AI

ChatGPT (GPT-5) was employed primarily for rephrasing sentences and elaboration to enhance clarity and readability, and for grammar checking to ensure linguistic accuracy in academic and professional writing.

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Article submitted: September 29, 2025; Peer review completed: December 20, 2025; Revised version received: January 22, 2026; Accepted: February 8, 2026; Published: February 20, 2026.

DOI: 10.15376/biores.21.2.3394-3416