Synergistic effects of magnesium sulfate and compost on improving the productivity of date palm under drought stress

Mosa, W., Almutairi, K., Malusà , E., Ayoub, A., Abada, H., and Mohamed , A. H. (2026). "Synergistic effects of magnesium sulfate and compost on improving the productivity of date palm under drought stress," BioResources 21(3), 8275–8302.

Abstract

Drought is one of the most significant environmental stress factors negatively affecting fruit tree cultivation because they are highly water-dependent. Water shortage adversely affects the growth and development of fruit trees, leading to a severe reduction in productivity and fruit quality. In particular, drought harms photosynthesis, which is essential to produce carbohydrates. Therefore, developing mitigation strategies and effective water management is vital for maintaining fruit tree health and sustainability. This study was conducted to investigate the influence of adding soil compost individually and in combination with spraying of magnesium sulphate (MgSO₄) on improving the soil fertility, productivity, and fruit quality of date palm cv. Barhi. The date trees were fertilized with 5 and 10 kg of compost, and then they were sprayed with 0.5, 0.75, and 1 % MgSO₄ four times: starting from mid-February with one-month intervals between sprays, as compared to untreated trees as a control. The results revealed that combining soil-applied compost with foliar spraying of MgSO₄ enhanced the productivity and fruit quality of date palm. The best results were obtained by adding 10 kg compost + 1% MgSO₄, followed by 10 kg compost + 0.75% MgSO₄ and 5 kg compost + 1% MgSO₄.

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Synergistic Effects of Magnesium Sulfate and Compost on Improving the Productivity of Date Palm Under Drought Stress

Walid F. A. Mosa ,^a,* Khalid F. Almutairi ,^b,* Eligio Malusà ,^c Ahmed Ayoub,^d

Hesham S. Abada,^e and Azza H. Mohamed ^f

DOI: 10.15376/biores.21.3.8275-8302

Keywords: Organic fertilization; Productivity; Magnesium sulphate; Date palm

Contact information: a: Plant Production Department (Horticulture-Pomology), Faculty of Agriculture, Saba Basha, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21531, Egypt; b: Department of Plant Production, College of Food Science and Agriculture, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; c: Council for Agricultural Research and Economics – Center for Viticulture and Enology, via Micca 35, 14100 Asti, Italy; d: Project Management Department, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute (ALCRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg Al-Arab City, Egypt; e: Plant Production Department, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City 21934, Egypt; f: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida (IFAS), Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA;

* Corresponding authors: [email protected]; [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

Dates are rich in essential components, including sugars, proteins, nutrients, fiber, antioxidants, and vitamins (Kamal-Eldin and Ghnimi 2018). Drought represents a critical abiotic stress that limits agricultural productivity across the world, impairing the growth, vitality, yield, and fruit quality of trees due to their substantial dependence on water availability (Šircelj et al. 2007; Almutairi et al. 2024). Water deficiency leads to a reduction in the photosynthesis process, which is a vital process for producing carbohydrates by converting sunlight into energy, ultimately minimizing the growth and fruit productivity (Wang et al. 2018; Roussos 2020). Various agricultural management practices can be employed to mitigate drought stress, including enhancing soil water retention capacity, increasing organic matter content, and improving soil fertility (Kılıç et al. 2024).

Organic fertilizers, particularly compost, are essential components of sustainable agriculture because they improve soil quality by promoting better soil structure and moisture retention, while increasing cation exchange capacity and the availability of essential nutrients. These effects are especially beneficial in sandy soils characterized by low organic matter content and poor nutrient retention. Moreover, the high organic matter content of compost stimulates microbial activity, increasing nutrient and mineral availability for plants and thereby enhancing crop growth and productivity (Diacono and Montemurro 2010; Wang et al. 2014). Soil organic matter also plays a vital role in soil fertility by improving the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, which contribute to higher crop yields and better water infiltration and retention, ultimately increasing plant tolerance to drought conditions (Gokcen and Kuzucu 2023; Kuzucu and Gökçen 2024).

Compost is also effective in optimizing the structural, chemical, and biological traits of soils (Lakhdar et al. 2009), and raising the pH of acidic soils (Ch’Ng et al. 2014). Roghanian et al. (2012) demonstrated that compost amendment stimulates root system development and enhances nutrient acquisition, thereby promoting greater vegetative growth, as reflected in increased stem elongation and plant dry biomass. Furthermore, compost decomposition facilitates nutrient mineralization and improves nutrient solubility, resulting in enhanced soil availability of phosphorus and potassium. Incorporating compost into cultivation soil can enhance crop productivity and increase soil organic matter content (Luo et al. 2017). The application of compost is generally recognized to improve soil water retention and increase moisture availability, although its impact can vary widely depending on factors such as soil texture, compost properties, and environmental conditions (Sax et al. 2017). Compost use can also influence the soil microbiome, promoting greater microbial diversity (Thompson et al. 2019). Compost application contributes to the improvement of soil physicochemical quality by increasing water retention, enhancing cation exchange capacity, improving nutrient bioavailability, and promoting greater soil structural integrity and stability (Hasini et al. 2020; Manirakiza and Şeker, 2020). These improvements promote better nutrient uptake and transport within plants by improving the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil (Gondek et al. 2020). In saline soils, compost mitigates the adverse effects of salinity through enhanced nutrient availability and water absorption (Castiglione et al. 2021). Consequently, compost application contributes to improved plant nutritional status and overall growth performance (Ud Din et al. 2023). Compost serves as a gradual nutrient supplier, fostering enhanced plant growth and agricultural productivity while limiting nitrate leaching into groundwater systems. Consequently, its use can alleviate one of the major environmental challenges associated with intensive synthetic fertilizer application (Jatav et al. 2025).

Magnesium (Mg) is a vital macronutrient that performs indispensable functions in plant growth and development. As the central atom of the chlorophyll molecule, it is fundamental to photosynthetic activity. Moreover, Mg serves as a cofactor for numerous enzymatic reactions, facilitates carbohydrate metabolism and transport, supports cellular homeostasis, and plays a critical role in protein biosynthesis and cell division (Verbruggen and Hermans 2013). Mg also enhances plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, particularly drought and salinity, which can explain why it has become increasingly important in modern agricultural production (Boaretto et al. 2020). Furthermore, Mg transporters contribute to proper pollen development, male fertility, and fruit quality (Tian et al. 2021; Xu et al. 2021). Adequate Mg nutrition enhances fruit quality traits, including flavor, soluble solids, sugar content, and vitamin C concentration, as reported in grapefruit and other citrus crops (Papadakis et al. 2023). On the other hand, the deficiency of Mg disrupts nutrient uptake and utilization, reduces photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and carbohydrate transport, and impairs various metabolic processes, leading to reduced plant growth, biomass accumulation, yield, and fruit quality (Ling LiLi et al. 2009). In citrus species, Mg deficiency alters nutrient distribution, decreases CO₂ assimilation, impairs cell metabolism and carbohydrate partitioning, and can reduce iron accumulation in roots, ultimately lowering fruit yield and quality (Huang et al. 2019; Jia et al. 2021). Similar adverse effects have been reported in date palm and grapevine, where Mg deficiency negatively affects plant productivity and fruit quality (Anli et al. 2023; Copp et al. 2025).

Sulfur (S) is a macronutrient required for plant growth and development (Marschner 2012; Kopriva et al. 2019) and is also known to enhance crop quality (Kopriva et al. 2015) as well as improve plant responses to abiotic stresses (Santisree et al. 2019). A sufficient supply of S throughout all stages of plant growth is essential for optimal crop performance (Edis and Norton 2012). The physiological importance of S is attributed to its role as a fundamental constituent of S-containing amino acids, including methionine, cysteine, and cystine, as well as sulpholipids and various coenzymatic compounds that are essential for cellular metabolism and plant development. Through these functions, S contributes to protein biosynthesis, chlorophyll and B-group vitamin formation, carbohydrate metabolism, and the regulation of plant growth and metabolic activities via its interaction with proteolytic enzyme systems (Njira and Nabwami 2015). S deficiency reduces root hydraulic conductivity, a response that may be involved in root-to-shoot signaling of nutrient deprivation (Mitchell 2021).

Therefore, this study was designed to examine the combined effects of soil-applied compost and foliar spraying with magnesium sulfate on the growth and productivity of Barhi date palm, thereby enhancing yield and the fruit’s physical and chemical properties.

EXPERIMENTAL

The study was conducted during the 2024 and 2025 seasons on 12-year-old Barhi date palm trees, which were originally planted in the Wadi El-Natroun region of El-Behera Governorate, Egypt. The trees were cultivated in sandy soil, spaced 7 × 7 m² apart, and irrigated using a drip irrigation system. Sixty date palm trees, as similar as possible in their vigor, were chosen for this study, where 5 trees (5 replicates) were selected for each treatment. The treatments were organized using a Split Plot Design, with soil compost application serving as the main factor and foliar spraying of MgSO₄as the submain factor, compared to unsprayed trees used as the control. The trees were fertilized with 5 and 10 kg of compost at the start of February 2024. Subsequently, the date palms were sprayed with 0.5, 0.750, and 1 % MgSO₄, four times, starting from mid-February with one-month intervals between sprays, compared to untreated trees as a control. The analysis of the experimental soil is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Physiochemical Soil Characteristics

Table 2. Physiochemical Soil Characteristics After the Addition of Compost

Table 3. Meteorological Data of the Experimental Area During the Two Study Seasons

The effect of the treatments mentioned above was examined by studying their effects on the following parameters.

Palm Yield

At harvest, palm yield was measured in kg, and the total yield per hectare was calculated by multiplying the number of palms by their average yield.

Fruit Quality

In September of 2024 and 2025, at the time of fruit ripening, 40 fruits from each tree (replicate) were harvested and immediately transported to the laboratory for analysis of their physical and chemical characteristics.

Fruit Physical Characteristics

The average fruit weight (g) was obtained by calculating the mean weight of 40 individual fruits. Flesh weight (g) and seed weight (g) were measured, and the flesh-to-fruit ratio was determined. Fruit length and width (cm) were measured using a digital vernier caliper, while fruit firmness (lb/in²) was evaluated with a Magness–Taylor pressure tester (model FT 02, range 0 to 2 lb, Alfonsine, Italy).

Fruit Chemical Characteristics

The total soluble solids percentage in fresh fruits was measured using a hand-held refractometer. Fruit acidity, expressed as a percentage of malic acid, was determined by titrating fruit juice with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein as an indicator (AOAC 2005). Total sugar content (%) was quantified using the phenol–sulfuric acid method, while reducing sugars were measured colorimetrically following Nelson’s procedure (Nielsen 2010). Non-reducing sugar content was calculated by subtracting reducing sugars from total sugars. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) concentration in the juice was determined via titration with 2,6-dichloro phenol-indophenol (Nielsen 2017). Total chlorophyll content was estimated according to Richardson et al. (2002), with absorbance measured at 650 nm using a spectrophotometer (Jiangxi Dongling Technology Company, Qingshanhu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China). Similarly, carotene content was determined following the method of Aquino et al. (2018), with absorbance recorded at 440 nm.

Statistical Analysis

The statistical analysis was performed using a split-plot design in CoHort Software version 6.311 (Pacific Grove, CA, USA). Treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD₀.₀₅) test as described by Snedecor and Cochran (1990).

RESULTS

Table 4 shows that adding compost to the soil enhanced bunch weight, palm tree yield, and yield per hectare. The improvement became more pronounced when combined with foliar spraying of MgSO₄ compared to the control. The highest performance was achieved with the combined treatment of 10 kg compost and 1% MgSO₄, surpassing all other treatments. Furthermore, higher foliar doses of MgSO₄were particularly effective in boosting bunch weight and overall productivity of date palm trees in both seasons.

The data in Table 5 demonstrate that when date palm trees were fertilized with compost combined with the spraying of MgSO₄, they significantly improved the fruit weight, flesh weight, and flesh fruit ratio compared to untreated trees. Moreover, the soil addition of 10 kg from compost mixed with the spraying of 1% MgSO₄,followed by 0.75% MgSO₄,notably improved these physical fruit characteristics over the addition of the compost or spraying MgSO₄ individually. Additionally, adding 5 kg of compost to the soil and then spraying the date trees with 1% MgSO₄ also improved the fruit and flesh weights and flesh-fruit ratio.

Table 4. Effect of the Soil Addition of Compost and the Spraying of Magnesium Sulphate on Date Palm cv. Barhi During 2024 and 2025 Seasons

Table 5. Effect of the Soil Addition of Compost and the Spraying of Magnesium Sulphate on Date Palm cv. Barhi During 2024 and 2025 Seasons

The addition of 6 or 10 kg from compost, combined with spraying the date trees with MgSO₄ improved the fruit length and fruit diameter compared to untreated trees (Table 6). The fruit diameter and fruit firmness significantly improved by the addition of 10 kg compost combined with the spraying of 1% MgSO₄ compared to the other applied treatments. The differences between the effects of 10 kg compost combined with the foliar spraying of 1 or 0.75% MgSO₄ and 5 kg compost + 1% MgSO₄ were insignificant. Moreover, fruit length, diameter, and firmness were improved with the spraying of 1% MgSO₄ more than 0.75 or 0.5% MgSO₄ in the two seasons.

Table 6. Effect of the Soil Addition of Compost and the Spraying of Magnesium Sulphate on Date Palm cv. Barhi Fruit Quality During 2024 and 2025 Seasons

Across the two seasons, trees treated with compost in combination with MgSO₄spraying exhibited considerably higher levels of carotene, vitamin C, and chlorophyll in fruits than untreated trees (Table 7). Additionally, the fruit content of carotene and vitamin C was clearly increased by the addition of 10 kg of compost combined with 1% MgSO₄ relative to the applied treatments. For chlorophyll content, the highest significant values were obtained by the combined application of 10 kg compost mixed with the spraying of 1% and then with 0.75% MgSO₄. The high-sprayed doses from MgSO₄ were more efficient in their influence in improving the fruit content from these chemical fruit characteristics rather than the trees that were not sprayed.

Table 7. Effect of the Soil Addition of Compost and the Spraying of Magnesium Sulphate on the Fruit Composition from Carotene, Chlorophyll, and Vitamin C in Date Palm cv. Barhi During 2024 and 2025 Seasons

The fruit content from total soluble solids and also TSS/Acidity ratio were significantly increased via the addition of 10 kg compost combined with the spraying of 1% MgSO₄. Meanwhile, this treatment markedly reduced the fruit content from acidity percentages compared to the control (Table 8). In both seasons, the application of 10 kg compost with either 0.75% or 0.5% MgSO₄ sprays, as well as 5 kg compost + 1% MgSO₄, significantly improved fruit TSS% and the TSS/Acidity ratio, while simultaneously lowering fruit acidity compared with other treatments.

Table 8. Effect of the Soil Addition of Compost and the Spraying of Magnesium Sulphate on the Fruit Content from TSS%, Acidity%, and TSS/Acidity in Date Palm cv. Barhi During 2024 and 2025 Seasons

Table 9. Effect of the Compost Soil Addition and Magnesium Sulphate Spraying on Fruit Content from Total, Reduced, and Non-reduced Sugars in Date Palm cv. Barhi During 2024 and 2025 Seasons

The results demonstrated that the application of compost and foliar spraying with MgSO₄ significantly increased both total and reducing sugar contents during the 2024 and 2025 seasons (Table 9). A progressive increase in sugar accumulation was observed as compost amounts increased from 0 to 10 kg and MgSO₄ concentrations rose from 0 to 1%. The maximum total sugar contents (32.6 and 33.2%) and reducing sugar contents (26.2 and 26.8%) were achieved with the combined treatment of 10 kg compost and 1% MgSO₄, whereas untreated plants exhibited the lowest values. Conversely, non-reducing sugars were not significantly influenced by the treatments, as no significant differences were detected among the means. The positive effect of compost and MgSO₄ may be associated with enhanced nutrient availability and improved photosynthetic efficiency, which promote carbohydrate biosynthesis and their subsequent accumulation in fruit tree tissues.

DISCUSSION

The results clearly show that adding compost to the soil improved date palm productivity and fruit quality. These results were explained by many authors who reported that the application of compost improves soil physical, chemical, and biological properties by acting as both a nutrient source and a soil conditioner. Besides, compost increases soil organic matter, dissolved organic carbon, humic substances, nutrient retention and availability, cation exchange capacity, and water-holding capacity, thereby enhancing root development and plant productivity (Lehmann et al. 2011; Marschner 2011). By stimulating beneficial microbial and rhizospheric communities, compost improves soil health and functionality. Its incorporation enhances soil structure, increases pore space and water movement, lowers bulk density, and improves hydraulic properties and irrigation efficiency. These effects collectively promote more favorable soil moisture conditions and enhance plant resilience to environmental stresses such as water deficit and salinity (Schulz et al. 2014). Furthermore, compost contributes to soil carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation, while reducing production costs and the environmental impacts of agricultural practices through lower requirements for synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and fuel inputs (Scotti et al. 2016).

Bernal et al. (2017) and Wang et al. (2022) investigated the effects of compost application on soil fertility, crop performance, and environmental impacts, reporting that compost improves soil physical structure, increases nutrient accessibility, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions relative to conventional fertilization systems. Compost improves efficiency of nutrient use, helps preserve soil organic carbon, and enhances soil carbon sequestration, underscoring the importance of sustainable soil management practices for maintaining resilient agricultural systems (Pergola et al. 2018; Zhao et al. 2020). The application of compost as a soil amendment enhances soil fertility, promotes carbon sequestration, and improves the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soil (Sultana et al. 2021). In this context, composting aligns effectively with the circular economy concept by promoting nutrient recycling and reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. Moreover, it supports sustainable agricultural systems and plays a vital role in ensuring long-term food security (Ajaweed et al. 2022). Consequently, compost application enhances crop productivity and tolerance to abiotic stresses, reduces soil erosion, nutrient losses, and dependence on synthetic fertilizers and excessive irrigation, while contributing to improved water quality, reduced environmental pollution, and healthier agroecosystems (Ho et al. 2022; Mosa et al. 2024). In addition, compost supplies essential macro- and micronutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, iron, copper, zinc, and boron, enhancing nutrient uptake, photosynthetic activity, plant growth, and productivity (Otaiku 2022). It helps maintain soil pH within a favorable range for crop production, promotes nutrient cycling through increased microbial activity, and serves as a slow-release nutrient source that improves long-term soil fertility and nitrogen use efficiency while reducing nutrient losses (Aouass and Kenny 2023; Bremaghani 2024). The incorporation of compost into mango orchards was found to positively influence tree growth and productivity, resulting in enhanced vegetative development, greater fruit retention, increased yield, improved physical and biochemical fruit characteristics, and a more favorable leaf mineral composition compared with non-amended controls (Mosa et al. 2024).

The beneficial effects of magnesium (Mg) on yield and on the physical and chemical attributes of fruit are largely explained by its fundamental involvement in a wide range of physiological and biochemical processes that underpin plant growth, nutrient efficiency, and tolerance to environmental stresses. Additionally, Mg is an essential macronutrient and a structural component of the chlorophyll molecule, where it contributes to chlorophyll synthesis and stability, enhances photosynthetic efficiency, and promotes the production of assimilates (Cakmak 2013). Mg also regulates potassium transport across cell membranes, stimulates root activity, and improves nutrient absorption, helping to maintain osmotic balance, stomatal conductance, and enzymatic functions (Hermans et al. 2013; Assunção et al. 2022). Additionally, Mg also activates more than 300 enzymes involved in photosynthesis, respiration, nucleic acid and protein synthesis, ATP formation and utilization, and other metabolic pathways essential for plant development (Farhat et al. 2016; Kleczkowski and Igamberdiev 2021). Mg plays a vital role in carbohydrate production, translocation, and fruit quality by enhancing photosynthesis, facilitating assimilation transport from source leaves to sink organs, and promoting sugar accumulation in horticultural crops such as citrus and apple (Li et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2022). Adequate Mg nutrition improves the uptake and balance of essential nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium, thereby enhancing plant growth, yield, and fruit quality (Ye et al. 2019). Furthermore, sufficient Mg levels contribute to soil fertility and rhizosphere health by maintaining nutrient equilibrium, improving nutrient availability, supporting optimal rhizosphere pH, and stimulating beneficial microbial populations in the rhizosphere, particularly mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (Wang et al. 2020; Hou et al. 2021). Such interactions enhance nutrient absorption, boost tolerance to abiotic stress, and support increased crop productivity alongside long-term agricultural sustainability (Yang et al. 2021). In apple cv. Red Fuji, Mg application was shown to improve nitrogen utilization, photosynthesis, anthocyanin biosynthesis, fruit size, fruit weight, and overall productivity (Tian et al. 2023). Conversely, Mg deficiency impairs assimilate transport, causes carbohydrate accumulation in leaves, reduces photosynthetic performance, and ultimately decreases crop productivity and fruit quality. Mg is readily mobile in soil and easily lost through leaching, particularly in sandy soils and systems with heavy fertilization; therefore, maintaining adequate Mg levels is vital for maximizing plant development, yield, and fruit quality (Senbayram et al. 2015).

Sulphur (S) is an essential nutrient that supports plant growth and productivity through its role in the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, vitamins, chlorophyll, and photosynthetic membrane sulfolipids, thereby enhancing photosynthesis, carbohydrate production, and overall plant development (Brosnan and Brosnan 2006; Maathuis 2009). S supplementation has been shown to promote cellular division and expansion processes, thereby contributing to the development and enlargement of plant organs and enhancing overall crop growth and productivity (Patel et al. 2019), and improve nutrient acquisition and utilization efficiency (Zenda et al. 2021). Additionally, it also participates in the biosynthesis and signaling of phytohormones, such as ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, and polyamines, which enhance plant defense mechanisms and improve tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Samanta et al. 2020; Jahan et al. 2021). S is a significant growth-limiting nutrient and influences the uptake of other nutrients such as N, P, K, molybdenum, zinc, iron, selenium, and boron (Astolfi et al. 2021). Besides, it is essential for plant growth and productivity due to its critical role in nutrient acquisition and metabolism. It enhances nitrogen uptake and assimilation by facilitating the incorporation of nitrogen into amino acids and proteins, thereby improving nutrient use efficiency and supporting higher crop yields (Dawar et al. 2023). Furthermore, S plays a vital role in chlorophyll biosynthesis, facilitating efficient light energy capture for photosynthesis and supporting plant growth. It is also an essential constituent of numerous enzymes and coenzymes involved in key metabolic processes, particularly nitrogen assimilation, which is fundamental for amino acid and protein synthesis. Consequently, adequate S nutrition enhances growth, development, and productivity, thereby increasing fruit weight and yield, whereas S deficiency impairs chlorophyll formation, reduces photosynthetic efficiency, and ultimately limits crop productivity (Narayan et al. 2023).

CONCLUSIONS

The combined soil application of compost and foliar spraying of MgSO₄, either individually or in combination, significantly improved fruit yield and enhanced physical and chemical fruit quality compared with untreated trees under drought stress conditions.
The most effective treatment was the application of 10 kg compost combined with 1% MgSO₄, followed by 10 kg compost with 0.75% MgSO₄, and then 5 kg compost with 1% MgSO₄, all of which showed superior yield and quality performance.
The observed improvements in yield and fruit quality may be associated with the use of organic amendments and magnesium supplementation, which are commonly reported to support plant productivity under stress conditions.
Overall, compost application in combination with MgSO₄ foliar spraying appears to be a promising agronomic practice for improving date palm productivity and fruit quality under drought stress; however, further studies are needed to confirm the underlying effects on soil physicochemical properties.

Funding

This research was funded by Ongoing Research Funding program, (ORF-2026-561), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors extend their appreciation to Ongoing Research Funding program, (ORF-2026-561), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Data Availability Statement

All the required data are included in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Article submitted: February 12, 2026; Peer review completed: May 9, 2026; Revised version received and accepted: June 17, 2026; Published: July 15, 2026.

DOI: 10.15376/biores.21.3.8275-8302