Abstract
The effects of main veins of palm (Elaeis guineensis) particles and the amount of CaCl2 on the mechanical and physical properties of cement-bonded composite boards (CBCBs) were investigated in this study. Homogenous CBCBs were produced with main veins palm particles content at three levels of 10, 15, or 20 wt.% and CaCl2 at three levels of 0, 3, or 6 wt.%. Other manufacturing parameters consisting of pressure and time for cold-press, material dry weight, and panel dimensions were kept constant. The flexural strength, flexural modulus, internal bonding, water absorption, thickness swelling, and the thickness of CBCBs after 2 and 24 h immersion in distilled water were determined. The results indicated that increased amount of lignocellulosic particles caused a decrease in the mechanical properties of the CBCBs. The increase in calcium chloride up to 6 wt.% improved mechanical properties of the CBCBs. The panels manufactured with 10 wt.% E. guineensis particles and 6 wt.% CaCl2 showed the most favorable physical and mechanical properties.
Download PDF
Full Article
Technological Properties of Cement-Bonded Composite Board Produced with the Main Veins of Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) Particles
Nadir Ayrilmis,a Seyyed Khalil Hosseinihashemi,b,* Marziyeh Karimi,b Abolfazl Kargarfard,c Alperen Kaymakci,d and Homayoun Soleimani Ashtiani b
The effects of main veins of palm (Elaeis guineensis) particles and the amount of CaCl2 on the mechanical and physical properties of cement-bonded composite boards (CBCBs) were investigated in this study. Homogenous CBCBs were produced with main veins palm particles content at three levels of 10, 15, or 20 wt.% and CaCl2 at three levels of 0, 3, or 6 wt.%. Other manufacturing parameters consisting of pressure and time for cold-press, material dry weight, and panel dimensions were kept constant. The flexural strength, flexural modulus, internal bonding, water absorption, thickness swelling, and the thickness of CBCBs after 2 and 24 h immersion in distilled water were determined. The results indicated that increased amount of lignocellulosic particles caused a decrease in the mechanical properties of the CBCBs. The increase in calcium chloride up to 6 wt.% improved mechanical properties of the CBCBs. The panels manufactured with 10 wt.% E. guineensis particles and 6 wt.% CaCl2 showed the most favorable physical and mechanical properties.
Keywords: Cement-bonded composite board; Palm; Calcium chloride; Physical and mechanical properties
Contact information: a: Department of Wood Mechanics and Technology, Forestry Faculty, Istanbul University, Bahcekoy, Sariyer, 34473, Istanbul, Turkey; b: Department of Wood Science and Paper Technology, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran; c: Department of Wood and Paper Science, Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Tehran, Iran; d: Kastamonu University, Forestry Faculty, Department of Wood Mechanics and Technology, 37000, Kastamonu, Turkey; *Corresponding author: hashemi@kiau.ac.ir
INTRODUCTION
Agricultural wastes such as sugarcane bagasse, arhar stalks, date palm midrib, flax, babacu shell, vegetable fibers, vine stalks, wheat straw, and rice husk ash have been used as filler in the manufacture of wood-cement boards (Aggarwal 1995; Almeida et al. 2002; Ntalos and Grigoriou 2002; Papadopoulos and Hague 2003; Roma et al. 2008; Nemli et al. 2009; Nasser et al. 2011; Nasser 2012; Bahurudeen et al. 2015). These raw materials have been used as substitutes for mineral aggregates and solid woods from natural forests (Savastano et al. 2000; Karade et al.2001; Almeida et al. 2002; Semple et al. 2002; Li et al. 2004; Abdel-Kader and Darweesh 2010).
In order to remove chemical substances, pre-treatment of lignocellulosic particles with cold or hot water as well as the addition of CaCl2 or MgCl2 is required (Rahim et al. 1995; Olorunnisola 2008; Ashori et al. 2011; Zhou and Li 2012). Furthermore, there are many factors that affect the properties of cement-bonded composite boards (CBCBs), such as the effect of exothermic behavior during the hydration process (Hachmi et al. 1990; Semple et al. 2002; Okino et al.2004). Generally, lowering the amount of inhibitory extractives diffuse into the cement paste is beneficial for the wood-cement compatibility. In addition, hemicellulose, starch, sugar, tannins, and lignin, each to a varying degree, affect the cure rate and ultimate strength of these composites (Nazerian et al. 2011). The compatibility between wood particles and cement can be enhanced by the incorporation of chemical additives (Wei and Tomita 2001; Okino et al. 2004). The setting of cement can be delayed when composite panels are made using plant fibers, and the hemicelluloses, starch, sugar, tannins, certain phenols, and lignin appear to be responsible for this delay (Aggarwal et al. 2008; Nasser et al. 2011).
Some lignocellulosic species used in the production of wood-cement boards do not react well with cement because of extractives (Moslemi et al. 1983; Vaickelioniene and Vaickelionis 2006; Aggarwal et al. 2008). The effects of extractives can be overcome by adopting suitable measures such as cold water extraction and/or using an accelerator such as calcium chloride (CaCl2) (Almeida et al. 2002; Okino et al. 2004; Aggarwal et al. 2008; Olorunnisola 2009). A dose of 2% CaCl2 by weight of cement inhibits the adverse effects of 1% extractives of arhar stalks (Aggarwal et al. 2008). Moreover, particle size and amount have great effects on the mechanical (MOR, MOE, IB) and physical (water absorption, dimensional stability) properties of CBCBs (Semple et al. 2002; Aggarwal et al. 2008; Ajayi and Olufemi 2011; Marzuki et al. 2011; Nasser et al. 2011).
The oil palm tree is a common species in tropical countries. The veins of the oil palm are not efficiently used in industrial applications. Based on the extensive literature search, there is limited information on the potential utilization of oil palm veins in the production of cement-bonded composites. This study examined the suitability of using oil palm (E. guineensis) main veins as lignocellulosic filler and CaCl2 for manufacturing CBCBs. The mechanical and physical properties of the manufactured boards were determined.
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
The oil palm lignocellulosic particles (PLPs) were prepared from pruned branches of palm after the separation of its leaflets; the main veins (Fig. 1) were chopped using laboratory drum chipper, Pallmann PHT 120×430 to obtain suitable chips and changed to flack by Pallmann PZ8 ring flicker.
Fig. 1. The main veins of oil palm used CBCBs as palm lignocellulosic particles
The PLPs passing through a 1 mm × 1 mm sieve were mixed with the additive (CaCl2) in three levels. The type 2 Portland cement was manufactured by Zabol Cement Industries Company (Sistan Cement Plant, Sistan, Baluchestan province, Iran). This cement type was modified to increase the concrete strength against sulfate attack and decrease hydration temperature. The curing time of this cement was slower than that of type 1 Portland. Additionally, the hydration process was performed at low temperature. For this reason, this cement type is suitable for concrete in tropical regions.
Three different levels of the PLPs (10, 15, or 20 wt.%) and calcium chloride additive (0, 3, or 6 wt.%) based on the dry weight of cement (Table 1) were used in the production of experimental composites. Other factors such as cement type, thickness of composites, and press conditions were kept constant (Table 2).
Production of Cement-Bonded Composite Boards
Aluminum sheets with dimensions of 450 mm × 450 mm and wooden mold with dimensions of 400 mm × 400 mm × 70 mm were used in the production of cement-bonded composite boards (CBCBs). The PLPs were wetted with water plus calcium chloride solution. For all the CBCB specimens, the water to cement ratio was maintained at 0.5. After 15 min of manual mixing (Nazerian et al. 2011), the cement-wood water mixture was uniformly spread in a wooden mold. Nine types of panels were produced under laboratory conditions (Table 1).
Table 1. The Different Treatments for the Experimental Panels (Types of Produced CBCBs)
* PLP: Palm lignocellulosic particles; C: Cement; CC: Calcium chloride
Table 2. Constant Variables Used in the production of CBCBs
A total of 27 mats with dimensions of 400 × 400 mm were manually formed prior to pressing. Cold pressing (Burkle LA-160, Burkle, Germany) took place under an initial pressure of 3.80 MPa, to a 15 mm thickness, after which the boards were retained in compression for 12 h. The target board density was 1100 kg m-3. To minimize the cement capillary desiccation and enhance hydration, the boards were misted with distilled water and then wrapped in cellophane before storing for curing at 20 ºC and 65% relative humidity for a month. The schematic of production process of cement-bonded composite board are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Production process of cement-bonded composite board
Measuring of Mechanical and Physical Properties
The CBCBs were tested for mechanical properties including MOR (modulus of rupture), MOE (modulus of elasticity), IB (internal bonding), and physical properties including density, WA (water absorption), and TS (thickness swelling, after 2, and 24 h immersion in water) according to the DIN 68763 (1990) standard. The Instron Universal Testing Machine (model 1186) (Canton, MA, USA) was used for testing of the specimens (Fig. 3). Three replicates were tested for each treatment and the average values were obtained from them.
Fig. 3. The Instron Universal Testing Machine for flexural testing of the composite board
The MOR and MOE of the CBCBs specimens were calculated using the following equations,
MOR= 
(1)
MOE= 
(2)
Where, P (N) is the maximum load of rupture, L (mm) is the spam length, B (mm) is the width of specimen, H (mm) is the thickness of specimen, P1 (N) is the load in the proportion limit, and Y1(mm) is the change of length in the proportion limit.
In order to measure the IB property of CBCBs specimens, the specimens were glued to a metal plate using a thermosetting or heat-curing (hot melt) resin or adhesive. The cold water flow was used for cooling and complete curing of adhesive. After 2 hours the tensile test as indicator of internal bonding of boards were performed. The Instron Universal Testing Machine (model 1186) (Canton, MA, USA) was used at a loading speed of 2 mm/min. The IB of specimens were calculated using the following equation,
IB= 
(3)
Where, P (N) is the load of rupture, and A (mm2) is the area of specimens.
The determination of 2 hours and 24 hours water absorption (WA) and thickness swelling (TS) tests were performed according to ASTM D 1037 (1998). Water absorption test was conducted by immersing the CBCB specimens in a deionized water bath at 25 ºC for different time durations. After going through the 2 hours, 24 hours immersion process, the specimens were taken out from water and the surfaces were dried using a clean dry cloth. The specimens were reweighed to the nearest 0.1 mg within 1 min of removing them from the water. The specimens were weighed regularly at 2 hours, 24 hours exposure. The water absorption of each specimen was calculated by the weight difference.
Water absorption (%) was determined according to,
Water absorption (%) = 
(4)
Where, Wi is the initial weight and Wf is the final weight. Likewise, the thickness swelling (%) was calculated as,
Thickness swelling (%) = 
(5)
Where, Ti is the initial thickness and Tf is the final thickness.
Statistical Analysis
An analysis of variance was conducted (p< 0.05) to evaluate the effect of the PLPs and CaCl2 on some physical and mechanical properties of CBCBs. Significant differences among the average values of the CBCB specimens were determined using Duncan’s multiple range test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of Palm Particles and CaCl2 on MOR, MOE, and IB Values
The significance of different combinations of palm particles and CaCl2 as well as their interaction on the MOR, MOE, and IB values of the produced CBCBs are given in Table 3.
Table 3. ANOVA for the Independent and Dependent Effects of Palm Particles and CaCl2 on MOR, MOE, IB, Density, Water Absorption, and Thickness Swelling after 2 and 24 h of CBCBs
* Significant at α = 5% level; ns: Non significant
With increased CaCl2 from 0% to 6%, the MOR of the CBCBs increased from 4.62 MPa to 6.24 MPa. In contrast, with the increased amount of the particles from 10% to 20%, the MOR values significantly decreased from 6.55 MPa to 4.58 MPa (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Effect of palm particles and CaCl2 amounts on the MOR values of the produced CBCBs. (a) Flexural strength versus amount of calcium chloride without palm-lignocellulosic particles. (b) Flexural strength versus amount of palm-lignocellulosic particles without calcium chloride. (c) Flexural strength versus amount of calcium chloride – palm-lignocellulosic particles. Different letters in each column indicate a statistical difference (p< 0.05) among the composite groups.
The best combination for the MOR (8.01 MPa) was found in the specimens containing 6% CaCl2and 10% particles. The further addition of the particles up to 20% reduced the MOR to 4.24 MPa at 0% CaCl2. The decrease in MOR at higher particle content could be due to the increases in the composite porosity, as well as the reduction in the particle-matrix interfacial area (Aggarwal et al.2008). However, all the values were found to be lower than the minimum requirements (9.0 MPa) of the ISO 8335-1987 (1987) and BS 5669-1989 (Part 4 Specifications) (1989) standards. However, the combination of 6% CaCl2 with 10% particles (8.01 MPa) nearly reached the minimum requirements (ISO 8335-1987 (1987)).
As shown in Fig. 5, the CBCBs with 6% CaCl2 had the highest MOE value (5385 MPa) and the lowest MOE value with 0% CaCl2 (3699 MPa). The highest value was reached at 10% particles (5514 MPa). The best combination was found in the specimens with 6% CaCl2 and 10% particles (7656 MPa), and the lowest value was found in the specimens with the combination of 3% CaCl2-20% particles (2399 MPa). The MOE value of 6% CaCl2 with 10% particles exceeded the standard requirement (3.0 GPa) (ISO 8335-1987 (1987)).
ANOVA analysis showed that there were significant dependent effects of palm particles, CaCl2, and their combination on the IB values of CBCBs (Table 3). As shown in Fig. 6, the best values of IB strength were recorded in boards with 6% CaCl2 (0.41 MPa) and 10% particles (0.46 MPa) or with the combination of 6% CaCl2 and 10% particles (0.52 MPa). Furthermore, the addition of up to 20% particles increased the volume of particles and reduced the volume of matrix, which caused lower IB strength (Aggarwal et al. 2008).
Fig. 5. Effect of palm particles and CaCl2 amounts on the MOE values of the produced CBCBs (a) Modulus of elasticity in bending versus amount of calcium chloride without palm-lignocellulosic particles. (b) Modulus of elasticity in bending versus amount of palm-lignocellulosic particles without calcium chloride. (c) Modulus of elasticity in bending versusamount of calcium chloride – palm-lignocellulosic particles. The different letters in each column indicate that there is statistical difference (p< 0.05) among the composite groups.
Fig. 6. Effect of palm particles and CaCl2 amounts on the IB values of the produced CBCBs. (a) Internal bonding strength versus amount of calcium chloride without palm-lignocellulosic particles. (b) Internal bonding strength versus amount of palm-lignocellulosic particles without calcium chloride. (c) Internal bonding strength versus amount of calcium chloride – palm-lignocellulosic particles. The different letters in each column indicate that there is statistical difference (p< 0.05) among the composite groups.
The IB strength values were close to or exceeded the requirement standard (0.45 MPa). The interfacial area between the particles and cement matrix was reduced with increased particle amount. This could be due to increased particle-to-particle interaction, which decreased the bonding with cement and subsequently lowered the strength properties (Aggarwal et al. 2008).
Water Absorption of CBCBs after 2 and 24 h
The 2 h WA of the specimens was significantly affected by the amount of particles in the CBCB specimens (Table 3). However, after 24 h immersion in water, there was no significant effect of the amount of the particle on the WA of the specimens.
(a)
Fig. 7. Effect of palm particles and CaCl2 amounts on the WA values of the produced CBCBs after 2 and 24 h soaking in water. (a) Water absorption versus amount of calcium chloride without palm-lignocellulosic particles. (b) Water absorption versus amount of palm-lignocellulosic particles without calcium chloride. (c) Water absorption versus amount of calcium chloride – palm-lignocellulosic particles. The different letters in each column indicate that there is statistical difference (p< 0.05) among the composite groups.
As shown in Fig. 7, the highest WA value after 2 h was found in the CBCB specimens (6.6%) treated with 3% CaCl2, followed by the CBCB specimens manufactured with 20% particles (5.1%) and 10% particles (WA 4.3%). As for the combination treatments, the highest value was found in the CBCB specimens produced with 3% CaCl2 and 20% particles (WA 8%). The lowest values were found in the CBCB specimens with 0% CaCl2 (WA 3.7%), followed by 10% particles (WA 4.3%). The combined treatments of 0% CaCl2-15% particle, 0% CaCl2-20% particle, and 6% CaCl2-20% particle had the WA values of 2.9%, 3.1%, and 4.3%, respectively.
After 24 h (Fig. 7) immersion in water, the highest values of WA were found in the CBCB specimens manufactured with 3% CaCl2 (WA 7.3%), CBCB specimens manufactured with 10% particles (WA 6.8%) and 20% particles (WA 6.3%), and the combination treatment of 3% CaCl2and 20% particles (WA 8.2%). The lowest values were found in the CBCB specimens manufactured with 6% CaCl2 (WA 5.6%), followed by 15% particles (WA 6.1%) and 20% particles (WA 6.3%) and the combined treatments of 0% CaCl2-20% particles (WA 4.3%).
Thickness Swelling of Boards after 2 and 24 h
All the treatments significantly affected the 2 h and 24 h thickness swelling (TS) of the CBCB specimens (Table 3). The lowest 2 h TS value (3%) was found in the specimens with 6% CaCl2, followed by 10% particles (3.2%), and 6% CaCl2 with 10% particles (TS 2.2%), respectively. After 24 h (Fig. 8) immersion in water, the lowest TS value (3.6%) was found in the specimens with 6% CaCl2, followed by 20% particles (3.8%) and 0% CaCl2 with 15% particles (3.3%).
Fig. 8. Effect of palm particles and CaCl2 amounts on the TS values of the produced CBCBs after 2 and 24 h of soaking in water. (a) Thickness swelling versus amount of calcium chloride without palm-lignocellulosic particles. (b) Thickness swelling versus amount of palm-lignocellulosic particles without calcium chloride. (c) Thickness swelling versus amount of calcium chloride – palm-lignocellulosic particles. The different letters in each column indicate that there is statistical difference (p< 0.05) among the composite groups.
The treatment of 6% CaCl2 with 10% particles (TS 2.2%) was nearly reached the maximum requirement of ISO 8335-1987 (1987) (max. 2.0%). The WA and TS values of the CBCB specimens increased directly with time of water soaking from 2 to 24 h. After 24 h, the mean values of WA and TS were in agreement with those reported previously (Wei and Tomita 2001; Papadopoulos and Hague 2003; Okino et al. 2004). In addition, the denser panels having lower void spaces in the structure are expected to absorb less water (Guler and Ozen 2004; Roma et al.2008).
Board Density
The CaCl2 amount had a significant effect on the density of CBCB specimens (Table 3). With the increase in the CaCl2 amount from 0 to 6%, the density of CBCB specimens increased from 1.19to 1.64 g cm-3, respectively (Fig. 9a).
Fig. 9. Effect of amount of palm particles and CaCl2, and CaCl2-palm particles on the density of the produced CBCBs. (a) Density versus amount of calcium chloride without palm-lignocellulosic particles. (b) Density versus amount of palm-lignocellulosic particles without calcium chloride.
(c) Density versus amount of calcium chloride – palm-lignocellulosic particles. The different letters in each column indicate that there is statistical difference (p< 0.05) among the composite groups.
Even with increase in the particle amount from 10 to 20%, there were no significant differences between densities with values of 0.95 g cm-3 and 2.00 g cm-3, respectively (Fig. 9b). The lowest value was found in specimens with 0% CaCl2-10% particles (0.89 g cm-3) while the highest value was found in the specimens with 6% CaCl2-20% particles (2.63 g cm-3) (Fig. 9c). These values meet the ISO 8335-1987 (1987) standard requirement of a density above 1.00 g cm-3
The dimensional stability of the CBCB specimens improved with increasing CaCl2 content from 0 to 6%. The mechanical (IB and MOR) and physical properties (WA and TS) of the CBCB specimens increased with increasing density of the boards. These findings are consistent with previous studies. For example, Nasser and Al-Mefarrej (2011) reported that the date palm midrib particles were reclassified to suitable for wood-cement panels production under limited conditions (Tmax value was 54.23°C and the CA value was 75.73%) by the addition of 3% CaCl2 as an accelerator to the untreated particles. In other studies (Moslemi et al. 1983; Mohamed 2004), the addition of 3% CaCl2 to the mixture of cotton stalks and bagasse particles slightly improved the maximum hydration temperature for the untreated particles. Generally, the main veins of palm particles could be suitable for the production of cement-wood particleboards after the addition of CaCl2 (Sandermann and Kohler 1964; Okino et al. 2004). Ferraz et al. (2011) reported that the coir fiber (Cocos nucifera L.) was a suitable raw material for cement-bonded composites as physical and mechanical properties were enhanced by the addition of 4% CaCl2. However, 2% of aluminum sulfate and magnesium chloride significantly improved bending and tensile strengths of cement-bonded particleboard made from presoaked oil palm stems in comparison with calcium chloride, and there was no significant effect of particle size (Rahim et al. 1995).
CONCLUSIONS
- The results indicated that increased amount of main veins of palm particles caused a decrease in the mechanical properties of the CBCBs. However, the combination treatment of 6 wt.% CaCl2 with 10 wt.% particles (8.01 MPa) nearly reached the minimum requirements of ISO 8335 (1987) standard. The increase in the CaCl2 up to 6% resulted in improved mechanical properties of the CBCBs.
- The mean values of the studied parameters showed that the MOR, MOE, and IB of CBCB specimens increased directly with the increases of the CaCl2.
- The dimensional stability of the CBCB specimens improved directly with increasing CaCl2content from 0 to 6 wt.%. The lowest value of WA after 2 h was found in the specimens with 0 wt.% CaCl2-15 wt.% particles (2.9%) and 0 wt.% CaCl2-20 wt.% particles (4.3%) after 24 h.
- The board thickness decreased with the increasing amount of particles. The lowest TS values after 2 h and 24 h were found in the CBCB specimens manufactured with 6% CaCl2-10% particles (2.2%) and after 24 h with 0% CaCl2-15% particles (3.3%).
- The most favorable formulation of CBCB based on physical and mechanical properties tested consisted of 90 wt.% of cement + 10 wt.% of main veins palm particles + 6 wt.% of CaCl2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful for the support of the Department of Wood Science and Paper Technology, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran.
REFERENCES CITED
Abdel-Kader, A. H., and Darweesh, H. H. (2010). “Setting and hardening of agro/cement composites,” BioResources 5(1), 43-54. DOI: 10.15376/biores.5.1.43-54
Aggarwal, L. K., Agrawal, S. P., Thapliyal, P. C., and Karade, S. R. (2008). “Cement-bonded composite boards with arhar stalks,” Cement Concrete Comp. 30(1), 44-51. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.07.004
Aggarwal, L. K. (1995). “Bagasse-reinforced cement composites,” Cement Concrete Comp.17(2), 107-112. DOI: 10.1016/0958-9465(95)00008-Z
Ajayi, B., and Olufemi, B. (2011). “Properties of cement-bonded flakeboard from Gmelina arborea and Leucoaena leucocephala,” Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 5(2), 586-594. DOI: 10.4314/ijbcs.v5i2.72124
Almeida, R. R., Del Menezzi, C. H. S., and Teixeira, D. E. (2002). “Utilization of the coconut shell of babaçu (Orbignya sp.) to produce cement-bonded particleboard,” Bioresource Technol.85(2), 159-163. DOI: 10.1016/S0960-8524(02)00082-2
Ashori, A., Tabarsa, T., Azizi, K., and Mirzabeygi, R. (2011). “Wood-wool cement board using mixture of eucalypt and poplar,” Ind. Crop Prod. 34(1), 1146-1149. DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.03.033
ASTM D 1037 (1998). “Standard methods of evaluating properties of wood-based fibers and particle panel materials,” ASTM Standards, West Conshohocken, PA.
Bahurudeen, A., Kanraj, D., Gokul Dev, V., and Santhanam, M. (2015). “Performance evaluation of sugarcane bagasse ash blended cement in concrete,” Cement Concrete Comp. 59, 77-88. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.03.004
BS 5669 (1989). “Specifications for cement bonded particleboards,” British Standards Institution, London.
DIN 68763 (1990). “Flat pressed particleboard for use in building construction; Concepts, requirements, testing and inspection,” German Institute for Standardization (DIN), Berlin, Germany.
Ferraz, J. M., Del Menezzi, C. H., Teixeira, D. E., and Martins, S. A. (2011). “Effects of treatment of coir fiber and cement/fiber ratio on properties of cement-bonded composites,” BioResources6(3), 3481-3492. DOI: 10.15376/biores.6.3.3481-3492
Guler, C., and Ozen, R. (2004). “Some properties of particleboards made from cotton stalks,” Holz Roh Werkst. 62(1), 40-43. DOI: 10.1007/s00107-003-0439-9
Hachmi, M., Moslemi, A. A., and Camphell, A. G. (1990). “A new technique to classify the compatibility of wood with cement,” Wood Sci. Technol. 24(4), 345-354. DOI: 10.1007/BF00227055
ISO 8335 (1987). “Cement bonded particleboards – Board of Portland or equivalent cement reinforced with fibrous wood particles,” International Standards Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland.
Karade, S. R., Irle, M., and Maher, K. (2001). “Physico-chemical aspects of the use of cork in cementitious composites,” in: Proc. of 5th Int. Conf. on the Development of Wood Science, Wood Technology and Forestry, Ljubljana, Slovenia, p. 97.
Li, G., Yu, L., Li, J., Li, C., and Wang, Y. (2004). “Research on adaptability between crop-stalk fibers and cement,” Cement Concrete Res. 34(7), 1081-1085. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.11.026
Marzuki, A. R., Rahim, S., Hamidah, M., and Ruslan, R. (2011). “Effects of wood: Cement ratio on mechanical and physical properties of three-layered cement-bonded particleboards from Leucaena leucocephala,” J. Trop. Forest Sci. 23(1), 67-72.
Mohamed, T. E. (2004). Effects of Mixing Some Wood and Non-wood Lignocellulosic Materials on the Properties of Cement and Resin-bonded Particleboard, Ph.D Dissertation, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan.
Moslemi, A. A., Garacia, J. F., and Hofstrand, A. D. (1983). “Effect of various treatments and additives on wood Portland cement-water systems,” Wood Fiber Sci. 15(2), 165-176.
Nasser, R. A. (2012). “Physical and mechanical properties of three-layer particleboard manufactured from the tree pruning of seven wood species,” World Appl. Sci. J. 19(5), 741-753. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.wasj.2012.19.05.2764
Nasser, R. A., Al-Mefarrej, H. A., and Abdel-Aal, M. A. (2011). “Suitability of vine (Vitis vinifera L.) prunings for wood-cement industry,” American-Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci.11(6), 903-910.
Nasser, R. A., and Al-Mefarrej, H. A. (2011). “Midribs of date palm as a raw material for wood-cement composite industry in Saudi Arabia,” World Appl. Sci. J. 15(12), 1651-1658.
Nazerian, M., Gozali, E., and Dahmardeh Ghalehno, M. (2011). “The influence of wood extractives and additives on the hydration kinetics of cement paste and cement-bonded particleboard,” J. Appl. Sci. 11(12), 2186-2192. DOI: 10.3923/jas.2011.2186.2192
Nemli, G., Demirel, S., Gumuskaya, E., Aslan, M., and Acar, C. (2009). “Feasibility of incorporating waste grass clipping (Lolium pernne L.) in particleboard composites,” Waste Manage. 29(3), 1129-1131. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2008.07.011
Ntalos, G. A., and Grigoriou, A. H. (2002). “Characterization and utilisation of vine prunings as a wood substitute for particleboard production,” Ind. Crop Prod. 16(1), 59-68. DOI: 10.1016/S0926-6690(02)00008-0
Okino, E. Y., Souza, M. R., Santana, M. A., Alves, M. V., Sousa, M. E., and Teixeira, D. E. (2004). “Cement-bonded wood particleboard with a mixture of eucalypt and rubberwood,” Cement Concrete Comp. 26(6), 729-734. DOI: 10.1016/S0958-9465(03)00061-1
Olorunnisola, A. O. (2008). “Effects of pre-treatment of rattan (Laccosperma secundiflorum) on the hydration of Portland cement and the development of a new compatibility index,” Cement Concrete Comp. 30(1), 37-43. DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.08.002
Olorunnisola, A. O. (2009). “Effects of husk particle size and calcium chloride on strength and sorption properties of coconut husk-cement composites,” Ind. Crop Prod. 29(2-3), 495-501. DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2008.09.009
Papadopoulos, A. N., and Hague, J. R. B. (2003). “The potential for using flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) shiv as a lignocellulosic raw material for particleboard,” Ind. Crop Prod. 17(2), 143-147. DOI: 10.1016/S0926-6690(02)00094-8
Rahim, S., Khozirah, S., and Salamah, S. (1995). “Cement-bonded particleboard from pre-soaked oil palm trunk: Effects of particle size and chemical additive,” J. Tropical Forest Prod. 1(1), 71-77.
Roma, L. C., Martello, L. S., and Savastano, H. (2008). “Evaluation of mechanical, physical and thermal performance of cement-based tiles with vegetable fibers,” Constr. Build. Mater. 22(4), 668-674. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.10.001
Sandermann, W., and Kohler, R. (1964). “Studies on mineral bonded wood materials VI.A short test of the aptitude of woods for cement bonded materials,” Holzforschung 18(1/2), 53-59.
Savastano, J. H., Warden, P. G., and Coutts, R. S. P. (2000). “Brazilian waste fibers as reinforcement for cement-based composites,” Cement Concrete Comp. 22(5), 379-384.
Semple, K. E., Cunningham, R. B., and Evans, P. D. (2002). “The suitability of five Western Australian mallee eucalypt species for wood-cement composites,” Ind. Crop Prod. 16(2), 89-100. DOI: 10.1016/S0926-6690(02)00012-2
Vaickelioniene, R., and Vaickelionis, G. (2006). “Cement hydration in the presence of wood extractives and pozzolan mineral additives,” Ceramics 50(2), 115-122.
Wei, Y. M., and Tomita, B. (2001). “Effects of five additive materials on mechanical and dimensional properties of wood cement-bonded boards,” J. Wood Sci. 47, 437-444. DOI: 10.1007/BF00767895
Zhou, X., and Li, Z. (2012). “Light-weight wood-magnesium oxychloride cement composite building products made by extrusion,” Constr. Build. Mater. 27(1), 382-389. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.07.033
Article submitted: Dec. 10, 2016; Peer review completed: Feb. 11, 2017; Revised version received and accepted: March 15, 2017; Published: March 28, 2017.
DOI: 10.15376/biores.12.2.3583-3600