Research Articles

Through field investigations and field experiments under different modes, the local cost composition and sources of income of agricultural straw carbonization and returning to the field in Xiangfen County, China, were analyzed, and an economic evaluation was carried out. The results showed that the preparation cost of biochar at the county scale was ¥ 1107/t, and it could be reduced to ¥ 507/t after excluding the straw cost. When considering only the income from yield increase, it is difficult to achieve profitability in both the mode of returning the field in batches with equal amounts and the mode of returning the field with a large dose at one time. However, when considering the combined income from yield increase, carbon sequestration, and emission reduction, the annual profit could reach up to ¥ 269/ha. If the straw is owned by farmers (the straw cost is not included), the highest annual income can reach ¥ 1241/ha. Although the upfront cost of agricultural straw carbonization and returning to the field is relatively high, in the long run, it has significant environmental benefits and economic potential in terms of increasing yields, sequestering carbon and reducing the use of chemical fertilizers.

This study evaluated the individual and combined effects of four additives—nano-silica, cationic polyacrylamide, cationic starch, and long fibers—on paper production from recycled white pulp. Various combinations were tested with long fiber pulp (0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) and different percentages of additives (nano-silica at 3% and 6%; cationic starch at 0.75% and 1.5%; cationic polyacrylamide at 0.07% and 0.15%). Fourteen different groups with a basis weight of 127 gsm were prepared and analyzed for their physical, mechanical, and microstructural properties. Results showed that the additives significantly impacted the properties of the paper. The highest smoothness was achieved with the combination of nano-silica and polyacrylamide, enhancing surface printability. However, the introduction of long fibers increased air resistance and decreased water absorbency, which could pose challenges in printing and machine operation. Maximum tensile and tear strength were observed in sheets with 15% long fiber pulp. Additionally, independent applications of 0.75% and 1.5% cationic starch also improved these properties. Electron microscopy revealed fewer defects in papers treated with nano-silica, though this may negatively affect water absorbency.

To keep consumers from the hazard of exposure to mycotoxins and meet the allowed limits, numerous physical and chemical approaches for eliminating Ochratoxin A (OTA) and Zearalenone (ZEN) have been studied. Enzymes technology, including carboxypeptidase and amidohydrolase, were evaluated on their ability to degrade OTA and ZEN. Two fungi, namely Aspergillus ochraceus and Fusarium graminearum, were isolated with their mycotoxins OTA and ZEN from contaminated yellow corn grains. Carboxypeptidase at 0.50 and 0.75 U/mL caused 33.3 and 57.7% degradation of OTA, and 27.1 and 57.2% degradation of ZEN, respectively. Amidohydrolase at 0.50 and 0.75 U/mL caused 68.0 and 76.9% degradation of OTA, and 26.7 and 53.7% degradation of ZEN, respectively. This study investigated the molecular docking interactions of carboxypeptidase (PDB ID: 3CPA) and amidohydrolase (PDB ID: 1QRE) with OTA and ZEN. Docking scores (S) and energy terms (E_conf, E_place, E_score1, E_refine, E_score2) were calculated to evaluate binding affinities. The OTA exhibited stronger docking scores (-6.00058 to -5.0568) compared to ZEN (-5.37388 to -4.4574), indicating higher thermodynamic stability. Key interactions, such as hydrogen bonds (H-donor/acceptor) and π-based interactions (H-pi/pi-H), were identified between ligands and active-site residues (e.g., ASN 185, LYS 51, and GLU 196).

While public reports exist about hardwood log and lumber prices, sawmills’ operating costs are proprietary, and few records are publicly available. Operating costs make up a considerable share of a sawmill’s cost structure and are, therefore, crucial for understanding the fiscal health of a given operation. Using the assumption that today’s depressed lumber and residue markets result in sawmills, on average, making no profit and incurring no loss, this study estimated operation costs of a hypothetical 4, 8, and 12 MMBF production hardwood sawmill in the eastern United States producing red oak lumber. Using this knowledge and the Log Recovery Analysis Tool (LORCAT), this study found that a sawmill’s financial well-being is highly dependent on hardwood log and operating costs as well as lumber prices. A 0.1% change in any of these factors will lead to a statistically significant change in profit for a sawmill. For example, with a 12 MMBF/year production sawmill, a 0.1% increase in operating cost would reduce profit by $4,510 but would increase profit $4,536 with an operating cost decrease of 0.1%. Similar observations can be made for log cost while lumber prices contribute even more to the volatility of the financial well-being of a sawmill.

Wind causes significant damage to trees in many parts of the world, affecting tree growth, morphology, and forest ecology. The risk of wind damage is believed to be increasing due to global climate change. In this study, effects of wind exposure on the anatomical traits and stem stand characteristics in stands of Trojan fir trees (Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani [Asch. and Sint. ex Boiss] Coode and Cullen) were investigated. The study was conducted on Ilgaz Mountain, northwest of Kastamonu City, Türkiye. The wind-damaged and undamaged Trojan fir trees were identified, and their wood anatomical and stand characteristics were compared. Tree-ring width and wood anatomical traits (tracheid length, tracheid lumen area, tracheid wall thickness, and ray width) were higher in undamaged fir trees than in wind-damaged fir trees. It has been suggested that prolonged exposure to wind in Trojan fir trees may result in the development of changes in wood anatomical traits and tree rings such that more wind-exposed trees could produce shorter and thinner tracheid traits, because tracheid cell development processes could be negatively affected by wind exposure. However, wind-damaged Trojan fir trees had greater stem height and diameter, slenderness ratio, and stand basal area than undamaged fir trees. In this study, tall trees tended to be the most vulnerable and least resistant to wind damage.

In this study, the Radiata pine-magnesium-laminated (RML) board was proposed to develop wood materials with flame retardancy. The 45° flammability test, cone calorimeter test, gas toxicity test, single burning item (SBI) test, and Steiner tunnel test were performed to confirm the flame-retardant performance of RML. For RML with 80 to 150 g/m² of flame retardant applied, the carbonized area in the flammability test was 44.3 to 35.0 cm²; in the cone calorimeter test, the total heat release (THR) was 5.4 to 6.2 MJ/m², and the time to stopped behavior of white lab mice was 857s, which surpasses the standard for semi-noncombustible materials in Korea. The RML was Class A2 based on EN 13823 (2020) in the SBI test and Class A based on ASTM E84-21a (2022) in the Steiner tunnel test. In conclusion, RML showed excellent flame-retardant performance. The thin wood veneer absorbs the flame retardant easily, and the magnesium board is a semi-noncombustible material. Accordingly, it was confirmed that an RML board could be a commercial wood-based building material with satisfactory flame retardancy.

Invasive species of Euphorbia peplus and Euphorbia geniculata weeds ‎compete with the crops and act as hosts for ‎other pests, consequently interfering with the livestock. Therefore, a comprehensive allelopathic screening of ‎Euphorbia spp. was implemented via aqueous extracts and decayed ‎residues against Triticum aestivum and their associated weeds.‎ Aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts of E. peplus and E. geniculata were ‎suppressed by the target weeds. The effects were influenced by plant types and ‎concentrations. The Brassica nigra weeds were very susceptible, while ‎T. aestivum was slightly sensitive.‎ The phytotoxicity of Euphorbia spp. decayed residues correlated with the used concentrations and soil properties. Euphorbia spp. extracts were tested against Sclerotina sclerotiorum, Alternaria alternata, and Fusarium oxysporum fungi. E. peplus at 2000 µg/mL decreased fungal growth by 57.1% (S. sclerotiorum), 63.1% (A. alternata), and 63.0% (F. oxysporum), while E. geniculata at 2000 µg/mL decreased fungal growth by 73.0% (S. sclerotiorum), 64.8% (A. alternata), and 72.7% (F. oxysporum). Euphorbia spp. allelochemicals were analysed by HPLC, which indicated the differential in secondary metabolite concentrations between the two species. These substances have a positive potential as natural pesticides that are used in the management of these species.

Wood modification via silicon ingredients was investigated to increase its resistance to biological decay. Surfactant and desiccant features of derived products of silicates are considered the main contributors in wood resistance to decay. The detected fungus from decayed wood sample was identified as Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Inhibitory tests showed that sodium silicate (SS) was more effective than potassium silicate (PS) and copper sulfate (CS) against P. chrysosporium growth. The weight loss of infected wood with P. chrysosporium without treatment was 32.2%, while treatment by SS, PS, and CS reduced weight loss to 4.3%, 11.5%, and 14.3%, respectively, over 40 days. To ducument the effect of SS, PS, and CS on P. chrysosporium, molecular docking was used to evaluate the binding interactions of these compounds with the active site (Lignin peroxidase) of P. chrysosporium (PDB ID: 1QPA). Binding affinities were determined via docking scores, conformational energies, placement energies, and refinement parameters evaluation. SS exhibited the strongest docking scores (S = -6.17 to -5.83) and favorable interactions, including metal coordination and hydrogen bonding. PS and CS showed moderate to weak binding, with distinct interaction patterns. These computational results highlight SS as a potential candidate for further experimental validation in targeting the 1QPA protein.

Composite materials, edge banding, and wooden dowels are being used in inner decorations and the construction of furniture frames. However, there is little information available concerning the withdrawal strength of various fasteners and in particular, dowels in these materials. The aim of this study was to determine the withdrawal strengths of PVC edge bandings with 0.8-, 1-, and 2-mm thicknesses, and dowels produced from six different wood species (ash, black pine, beech, chestnut, oak, and Uludağ fir) bonded parallel to the surfaces of oriented strand board with polyvinyl acetate (PVAc-D4) or polyurethane (PUR-D4). According to TS 4539 standard, the effect of wooden dowel species, thickness of edge banding, and the type of adhesives on the withdrawal strength were determined. Withdrawal strength values of the PUR-D4 adhesive was found to be 26% higher than the strength values of the PVAc-D4 adhesive.  The highest withdrawal strength was obtained for beech dowel bonded using PUR-D4 in the samples with 0.8 mm PVC edge banding (4.782 N/mm²), while the lowest withdrawal strength value was obtained for Uludağ fir dowel with the PVAc-D4 in the samples with 2 mm PVC edge banding (2.529 N/mm²). These values are higher than the predictive statement that allows designers to estimate the withdrawal strengths of dowels.

The degradation of wood in historic structures is influenced by a combination of environmental and biological factors. This study examined the chemical deterioration of wood in historical wooden houses in Rize, Türkiye, with a specific focus on the impact of altitude and facade orientation. Samples were collected from the south-facing facades of six historical buildings situated at varying elevations. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy was employed to assess the chemical changes in the wood, specifically in the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin content. A comparison was made between weathered samples and a new control specimen to assess the extent of degradation. The Carbonyl Index (CI) and Lignin Index (LI) were calculated to quantify structural changes. The results revealed substantial degradation in the surface chemistry of aged wood, primarily due to photodegradation and environmental exposure. No systematic correlation was found between altitude and degradation levels, suggesting that local microclimatic factors, rather than elevation alone, predominantly influence chemical deterioration. South-facing facades exhibited greater degradation, likely due to increased exposure to UV radiation. The findings underscore the importance of understanding site-specific environmental influences in heritage conservation, providing a foundation for future restoration efforts. These results emphasized the importance of integrating chemical characterization with environmental monitoring to optimize conservation practices.