Investigation of toxicity in textile materials from natural and synthetic-based polymers utilizing bioassay performances

Pekhtasheva, E., Mastalygina, E., Leonova, I., Palanisamy, S., Alagarsamy, A., Ayrilmis, N., Sillanpää, M., and Al-Farraj, S. A. (2025). “Investigation of toxicity in textile materials from natural and synthetic-based polymers utilizing bioassay performances,” BioResources 20(1), 765–789.

Abstract

Assessing the toxicity of textile samples in terms of risks to human well-being and health is a significant issue. In this study, 11 textile materials were tested using two procedures: the sperm motility inhibition test using bull spermatozoa and the acute immobility test using Daphnia magna. A comparative analysis was carried out considering the advantages of each toxicity assessment method. The bull sperm test was shown to be less sensitive and more complicated to carry out than the Daphnia magna immobility test. In addition, the inclusion of both dyes and synthetic fibres significantly influenced textile toxicity, with aqueous extracts from dyed textiles showing higher toxicity levels when tested alongside undyed textiles. The toxicity index for dyed textiles ranged from 37% to 62% in the motility inhibition test, while the Daphnia magna test showed an acute immobility parameter of 100% with the uncontaminated control medium.

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Investigation of Toxicity in Textile Materials from Natural and Synthetic-based Polymers Utilizing Bioassay Performances

Elena Pekhtasheva,^aElena Mastalygina ,^b,c,* Irina Leonova,^a Sivasubramanian Palanisamy ,^d,* Aravindhan Alagarsamy ,^e Nadir Ayrilmis ,^fMika Sillanpää ,^g,*^,h,i,j,k,m and Saleh A Al-Farraj ^l

DOI: 10.15376/biores.20.1.765-789

Keywords: Toxicity; Bioassay; Motility inhibition test; Acute immobility test; Daphnia magna Straus; Textile materials

Contact information: a: Academic Department of Commodity Science and Commodity Examination, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, 36 Stremyanny Lane, 115054 Moscow, Russia; b: Scientific Laboratory “Advanced Composite Materials and Technologies”, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, 36 Stremyanny lane, 115054 Moscow, Russia; c: Department of Biological and Chemical Physics of Polymers, Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 4 Kosygina str., 119334 Moscow, Russia; d: Department of Mechanical Engineering, PTR College of Engineering and Technology, Austinpatti, Madurai – Tirumangalam Road, Madurai – 625008, Tamil Nadu. India; e: Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, 522501, India; f: Department of Wood Mechanics and Technology, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkiye; g: Functional Materials Group, Gulf University for Science and Technology, Mubarak Al-Abdullah, 32093 Kuwait, Kuwait; h: Centre of Research Impact and Outcome, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Rajpura-140401, Punjab, India; i: Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mining, Metallurgy and Chemical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, P. O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa; j: Department of Civil Engineering, University Centre for Research & Development, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab, India; k: Sustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, Bidholi, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India; l: Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; m: Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu – 602105, India;

* Corresponding authors: elena.mastalygina@gmail.com; sivaresearch948@gmail.com; mikas@uj.ac.za

INTRODUCTION

Consumer safety is of paramount importance, especially with home textiles, as it has a direct impact on human well-being. Applying modified fibres, coatings, and textile auxiliaries to improve the operational and decorative characteristics of fabrics and nonwoven materials can pose a risk to human health. The shortcomings of fabric processing technology and the intricate formulations of fibre dressing and fabric finishing, which rely on synthetic resins together with various chemical compounds, both lead to the migration of chemicals into the environment and pose a threat to people.

Various chemicals are used during the processing of fibres. Toxic compounds most commonly found in textiles include pesticides, antimicrobial additives, and residual monomers in synthetic fibres, dyes and finishes, and pesticides in natural fibres (Ahn et al. 2008; Kemi 2016; Patti et al. 2020; Bour et al. 2023; Palanisamy et al. 2023a). Some of these substances can be hazardous, and they may be released into the environment through the production, consumption, and disposal of fabrics, negatively affecting the environment and people’s health. Table 1 shows a set of toxic compounds most commonly found in textiles [Technical Regulations of the Customs Union “On the safety of light industry products” (TR CU 017/2011)].

Table 1. Toxic Compounds Most Commonly Found in Textiles

For example, the following synthetic fibres can release their original monomers (substances used in their synthesis) into the environment: polyester, which contains acetaldehyde and dimethyl terephthalate; polyamide, which contains hexamethylene diamine and caprolactam; and polyacrylonitrile, which contains acrylonitrile and dimethyl formamide (Mather et al. 2023). These monomers can be toxic, allergenic or cause skin irritation (Armengol et al. 2022). The use of certain dyes in textile manufacturing may involve the presence of potentially harmful substances such as aromatic and ammonium compounds, metals and their compounds, alkali salts, etc. Certain dyes have been classified as carcinogenic and are banned in several countries (Starovoitova and Odido 2014). Some substances, such as chromium, can be highly toxic, while others have significant effects on the skin due to their use as colour fixatives in fabrics (Croce et al. 2017; Santulli et al. 2022).

The presence of impurities in textile materials made from natural fibres (such as cotton and linen) is a common occurrence, as these materials tend to acquire extraneous substances throughout the development of textile plants (Lusinyan et al. 2018; Ayrilmis et al. 2024). Special antimicrobial additives are used to treat natural fibres, which can be harmful to live organisms to prevent microbiological damage.

Formaldehyde (CH₂O) is often found in the finishing compounds used to make textiles hydrophobic and dimensionally stable. CH₂O can break down and transform into free structures, as well as be released into the environment via the skin (Nair et al. 2013; Patti et al. 2020). Standards for the maximum quantity of CH₂O that can be present in fabric-based textiles are crucial and are taken into account throughout the approval process. Particularly high concentrations of free CH₂O may be present during the finishing process of fabrics containing pre-condensates of resins that are thermoset to provide durability, crush strength and low shrinkage. CH₂O amount in fabrics is limited by legislation in several countries, including Russia, due to the severe toxicity of CH₂O-containing finishes for textile treatments and the widespread use of these agents (Chubirko et al. 2019; Saidakhmet et al. 2022).

Bioassays are utilized to determine the effect of substances on live animals (in vivo) or tissue/cell systems of culture (in vitro) for a thorough evaluation of warning signs for safety in toxicology in conjunction with chemical methods of control. Different bioassay systems are used as test objects, including ciliates, bacteria, mammal sperm, mammal corneal preparations, etc. (Klemola 2008; Tabanca et al. 2018).

Given the rapid growth of new goods and materials, it is crucial to focus on developing efficient bioassay methods. The use of express methods is recommended in the following scenarios: a) during the initial stages of developing materials and products to select optimal laboratory samples; b) when assessing various methods for transforming substances into a product; c) when determining the most suitable sterilization technique for a product; d) when altering the material’s composition; d) when expanding the application of a well-researched material (Brack et al. 2016; Mylsamy et al. 2024).

The toxicity evaluation of the detrimental effects of substances and the monitoring of toxicology in aquatic ecosystems are often assessed by using bioassays (Häder 2018). Some of these are as follows. Ecotoxicity tests for textile dyes; filter paper contact test with earthworms (Eisenia foetida); seed germination and root elongation toxicity test (Cucumis sativus, Lactuca sativa and Lycopersicon esculentum); acute immobilization test (Daphnia magna and Artemia salina); and the Comet assay with the rainbow trout gonad-2 cell fish line (RTG-2) and D. magna (Starovoitova and Odido 2014).

The use of bioassay techniques for detecting compounds along with toxic substances in the environment offers several advantages over chemical analysis methods. It is a more efficient, cost-effective, and straightforward approach (Hader 2018; Tišler and Zagorc-Kon 2008; Hybská et al. 2017; Padmanabhan et al. 2024).

Because of the complex nature of textiles and the variety of treatments used, it is essential to investigate the extent and character of adverse effects caused by aqueous extracts derived from textiles. Bioassay techniques detecting the combined effects of chemicals on test systems can provide valuable data for the development of materials with lower toxicity. On the other hand, bioassay methods are highly sensitive. Disadvantages of using these techniques to determine toxicity include false positive or inaccurate bioassay results due to the unique response of the test subject to exposure to toxicants and other environmental factors. It is preferable to integrate the application of multiple bioassays that complement each other in their responsiveness to different chemicals.

Today, a motility inhibition test, which involves a culture of mammal cells, usually bull spermatozoa, is often carried out to evaluate the toxicity of textiles and clothing (Klemola et al. 2006; Starovoitova and Odido 2014). This involves assessing changes in sperm motility using special analysers, which adds complexity to this procedure (Yudina et al. 2023). The inhibition sperm motility test is used as a standard assay in the development of novel bioassay approaches. Klemola et al. (2007) assessed the potential toxicity of components and reactive dyes in textiles using the Hepa-1 cytotoxicity test in conjunction with the sperm test. Researchers have also developed and used cytotoxicity tests using mouse hepatoma cells (Klemola et al. 2007), tests using Vibrio fischeri bacteria (Birhanlı and Ozmen 2005), embryo teratogenesis assays, and other methods (Wang et al. 2002).

When studying the ecotoxicity and water quality of industrial effluents, protozoa such as Daphnia magna are often utilized as test subjects (Castro et al. 2019). Wastewater from the textile industry may be evaluated for possible environmental hazards using an acute toxic study that uses daphnids as a model organism for biotesting aqueous medium. Much research has investigated residual fluids along with leached extracts through textile materials to mimic the environmental impacts of chemicals produced by textiles (Dave and Aspegren 2010; Jemec et al. 2016). Leachate water analysis is useful for estimating the potential environmental toxicity associated with chemical additives leached from laundry detergents. However, it is not the best method for determining the skin toxicity of compounds. Additionally, the rates of leaching vary between fabrics made from various basic materials.

Many studies have focused on analysing the toxicity of chemicals in model environments using the Daphnia magna Straus (1820) procedure, as they are the most hazardous textile additives (Bae and Freeman 2007; Verma 2008; de Oliveira et al. 2018). Investigating the potential of textile materials to exert harmful ecotoxicological effects was the primary objective of this investigation. This study evaluated the toxicity of water extracts of several different textile specimens against a reference specimen without harmful compounds. This study aimed to compare the results of a new technique for the visual determination of daphnid immobility in response to toxic substances extracted in an aqueous medium with those of the traditional sperm movement inhibition test. The standard visual technique using Daphnia magna is less complicated than the sperm technique because it does not require any additional equipment or analysers. The advantages of the method include its cost-effectiveness and the high sensitivity of the test items. The dynamics of daphnia immobilisation could be tracked over time by studying aqueous extracts of textile materials.

EXPERIMENTAL

Two techniques of toxicity assessment were used to evaluate eleven different textile materials, each with its own unique composition and treatment type. Table 2 lists the substances researched, including their fundamental features. The study included the most common types of fabrics and knitted fabrics: natural (cotton, linen), synthetic (polyester, polyamide), and mixed (polyester with cotton, viscose fibres, elastane) (Hicks et al. 1971). A variety of material properties were defined for woven textiles (ISO 2959 2011; Değirmenci and Çelik 2016) and knitted fabrics (ISO 8388 2003-12; Malcolm-Davies et al. 2018), including fabric thickness (T) for woven and knitted fabrics (ISO 5084 1996; Rogina-Car et al. 2020), area density calculated as mass per unit area (BS EN 12127 1998; Gore et al. 2006), and warp/weft mass/area (ISO 7211-6 1984; Silva-Santos et al. 2019).

Table 2. Features of the Textiles Analyzed in this Research

All of the fabric samples were brand new and never washed before testing. Pieces weighing 1.0 ± 0.01 g were obtained for the CH₂O test and bull sperm test, whereas pieces weighing between 0.5 and 4.5 g± 0.01 g were obtained for the Daphnia magna test. These pieces were cut using a pair of stainless-steel scissors. After soaking the samples in 50 mL of distilled water, the aqueous extracts could be made. For 24 h, the extraction process was conducted in a thermostat at 40 ± 2 °C.

The residual CH₂O was determined by ISO 14184-1 (2011) (Rogina-Car et al. 2020). First, 10 mL of acetylacetone was combined with 5 to 10 mL of each sample extract. The mixture was incubated at 40 ± 2 °C for 30 min before being cooled to 18 to 25 °C. It was then moved to 100 mL volumetric flasks that had been adequately filled with distilled water. At the same time, a “blank experiment” was conducted using distilled water rather than the textile extracts. Sample No. 2, which was made of consistently coloured black cotton, was one example where distilled water was used in lieu of acetylacetone to colour the extract. An optical density of the obtained solutions was determined at a wavelength of 412 nm by photoelectric colorimeter device KFK-2 ZOMZ (Russia). This was followed by the determination of the CH₂O content by making use of calibration curves.

The toxicity of textile extracts in water was evaluated using a sperm test, which is a technique for inhibiting cell motility in a mammalian suspension culture. The tests were carried out in compliance with the GOST 32075 (2013) (Yudina et al. 2023) & GOST R 53485 (2009) (Skriabin et al. 2024; Yudina et al. 2023) criteria, the national standards in Russia. The test was performed with a specialized analyzer monitoring the mobility parameter of bull spermatozoa in water-based textile media. The goal was to halt the movement altogether. Frozen granular bull sperm in liquid nitrogen vapours were provided as the biological test item. Sperm was prepared from freshly obtained undiluted semen obtained from bulls that have been tested for the quality of their offspring by dilution with synthetic media and subsequent freezing in liquid nitrogen (Lach et al. 2022). The fertilizing ability of bull semen, tested by artificial insemination of cows and heifers with frozen-thawed semen, must be at least 50% within 60 to 90 days after the first insemination. The sperm, after thawing, met the requirements and standards specified in Table 3 according to organoleptic, physical, biological, and morphological indicators.

Table 3. Characteristics of Frozen Bull Semen after Thawing

In the sperm test, textile concentrates were prepared at a ratio of 0.02 g/mL and combined with glucose and sodium citrate. Distilled water was used as an extractant. To prepare the extract, one of the selected elementary samples weighing 1.0 ±0.01 g was used. The elementary sample was placed in a flask with a ground-in stopper, filled with distilled water, and thoroughly mixed, ensuring complete wetting of the textile material with water. The experimental solution was an extract with the addition of the dry reagents glucose and sodium citrate (per 10 mL of test solution – glucose 0.4 g, sodium citrate 0.1 g). A glucose-citrate control solution was prepared as follows: 10 mL of distilled water; glucose, 0.4 g; and sodium citrate, 0.1 g.

To thaw frozen sperm, a diluent was taken into a test tube in the volume indicated in the passport for bull sperm, and it was placed in the thermostat of the analyzer at 40 ± 1.5 °C. Using anatomical tweezers, a sperm granule was removed from the Dewar flask and dropped into a test tube with a solution heated to 40 ± 1.5 °C. Immediately after defrosting, the contents of the test tube were thoroughly mixed by shaking the test tube and placed back in the thermostat for 5 to 6 min. A mixture of thawed diluted semen and textile extracts was prepared, resulting in a final sperm concentration of 3-5 million/mL.

The sperm motility was observed using the AT-05 Toxicity Analyzer (Russia), with examinations conducted every 15 min. The toxicity index was determined by matching the experimental data of the solution with the referent one. The test temperature was 40 ± 1.5 °C. The tested solutions (control and experimental) must be constantly held at the specified temperature during the experiment. The control and experimental solutions (0.4 mL of each) were taken into test tubes with ground-in stoppers and placed in the thermostat block of the AT-05 image analyzer at 40 ± 1.5 °C. A total of 0.1 mL of the resulting sperm suspension was placed in test tubes with control and experimental solutions. The sperm motility period was calculated as an average duration between double measurements, with the first measurement recording the presence of one motile cell and the second one indicating the complete stop of motion.

When sperm motility was approximately 10% of the initial activity in experimental capillaries, the process of accumulating experimental data was stopped. The toxicity index of textile water extracts was calculated based on a variance in cell motility between the experimental and referent media (Eq. 1). A toxicity index value falling within the 70% to 120% range indicated that the textile material was deemed non-toxic (Yudina et al. 2023).

(1)

In Eq. 1, I_m is an index of toxicity, t_test is the duration of sperm motility within the experimental specimen, and t_control is duration of sperm motility within the referent specimen.

An innovative approach to determining the toxicity of textiles has been developed based on the water quality bioassay technique as described in ISO 6341 (Subrero et al. 2019). Using Daphnia magna in an acute immobilisation test, acute toxicity is measured by comparing the survival and reproduction rates of the control sample with those of daphnids subjected to harmful chemicals for 2 days using a strain culture. The quantity of daphnids showing marks of movement under the experimental conditions is the main metric analysed. This metric is therefore influenced by reproductive success and longevity. Active filtrates include planktonic crustaceans of the genus Daphnia. In their process of naturally purifying water, they can absorb significant amounts of harmful compounds by circulating large amounts of water throughout their bodies. This group of creatures accumulates pollutants at an alarming rate. Daphnids are very sensitive to chemicals, even at low levels. In comparison to the uncontaminated control medium, the toxicity is ascertained through visual observation of the motor activity of daphnids, specifically the rate of movement and the overall count of deceased organisms. Testing functions may therefore be motor activity or daphnid mortality (Terekhova et al. 2018)

The capacity of daphnids to respond to the existence of hazardous compounds in the water textile extracts that impact their immobilization formed the basis of the established toxicity determination technique. The following practical issues were resolved to conduct toxicant analysis using Daphnia magna acute immobility test (henceforth, daphnids test): determining the minimum necessary mass of the sample to evaluate the toxicant effect; and determining the optimal period to account for motor activity and mortality.

Young Daphnia crustaceans less than 24 h old at the beginning of the test were exposed to a standard test substance in a certain concentration range. Immobilization was defined as the inability of Daphnia to move within 15 seconds after the contents of the test vessel were gently agitated, even if they were still able to move their limbs. The standard substance potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇ with a concentration of 1 mg/L) was examined to verify the correctness of the test conditions. Test reliability criteria: in the control test, including the control test with a solvent, no more than 10% of daphnids were immobilized. The concentration of dissolved oxygen at the end of the test was 3 mg/L in the control and test samples. Testing was performed in glass test tubes, which were not tightly closed during the experiment to reduce water loss due to evaporation and to avoid dust getting into the tested solutions. Daphnids were obtained from a healthy population (without symptoms of stress, with low mortality, without the presence of males and ephippia, colorless specimens, etc.). Organisms used for a particular test were obtained from a culture of the same Daphnia population. Daphnia were kept under standard cultivation conditions, and a climatic camera was used for cultivation. For cultivation during the experiment, water that is constantly used for cultivating daphnia in the laboratory was used. The water quality was constant throughout the test period and the water hardness was 200 mg/dm³ in terms of CaCO₃. The test was performed without pH adjustment.

The water extracts of textiles (experimental specimens) were used to create the samples (20 mL) in the following ratios: 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.07, or 0.09 g of sample to 1 mL of distillate. The best test parameters were identified by experimenting with different concentrations of the test sample in the medium. Next, 20 mL of test medium with a particular concentration of the samples were subjected to 10 juvenile daphnids that were less than 24 h old for a period of 148 h. For every fabric sample, the experiment was repeated three times with different concentrations of extract. After 24, 48, 72, and 96 h of testing, the number of organisms that survived was analyzed and compared to the reference values. The free-moving and immobilized daphnids were counted in the volume of the test experimental medium. The average number of test individuals who made it through a certain time period in either the experimental or control conditions was used as a survival indicator.

Toxic effects were defined as a 50% mortality rate or higher in comparison to the control media after 96 h of exposure to the test medium. Using checkpoints at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, the daphnids’ survival was monitored for 96 h. Acute immobility is a useful metric for describing the level of toxicity. This metric is derived using the percentage of test organisms that die or remain immobile for every amount of aqueous extract relative to the control media, as shown in Equation (2) (Subrero et al. 2019).

(2)

where A is a parameter for acute immobility, ¯X_control is the average quantity of organisms that survived in the referent medium, and ¯X_test is the average quantity of organisms that survived in the experimental medium for all concentrations of the sample. The explanation of these experimental findings is given in Table 4 (Subrero et al. 2019).

Table 4. The Analysis of Toxicity Level by A

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Because formaldehyde (CH₂О) is often used to treat cotton or linen-based textiles, the quantity of residual CH₂О was measured in test samples No. 1–5 that were made of natural fibres. Table 5 displays the amounts of formaldehyde and optical densities at 412 nm for the water extracts of textile specimens that were established using calibration curves. Sample No.2 (cotton evenly coloured black) and No.5 (linen treated with acid) both had residual levels of free CH₂О, according to the performed analyses.

The sperm test was used to evaluate the toxicity of textile extracts. Purified water, dextrose, and sodium citrate formed a solution that served as the control medium. Figure 1 displays the time-dependent motor activity of spermatozoa. Each testing cycle lasted 15 min, for a total of 3 h. The motility parameters of all samples dropped as the exposure period progressed. Toxic indices (I_m) were computed by comparing the motility parameters of the experimental and reference specimens. Because the test medium has the potential to stimulate sperm, the toxicity index may go above 100%.

The bleached cotton sample 1 and the coloured cotton sample 2 are shown side by side in Fig. 1(a). The results showed that the water-based extract from black-dyed, 100% cotton significantly inhibited the growth of bull spermatozoa. Additionally, an acute toxicity was shown by the extract from sample No. 2. One h into the trial, sperm motility dropped significantly. Clothes may lose some of their sanitary qualities if they include dyes made from natural materials. No. 4 and No. 5 linen samples, which were tested, did not contain any harmful compounds that might be removed into water (Fig. 1(b)). In the early stages, the acidified linen sample extract stimulated spermatozoa, leading to an increase in motility.

The extract from specimen No. 8 (bleached polyamide) exhibited a moderate degree of toxicity for bull spermatozoa, as shown in Fig. 1(c). Simultaneously, sample No. 6 (bleached polyester) included an aqueous extract that was not hazardous; its motility parameters were similar to those of the reference medium. The two specimens taken from knit materials containing a mixture of chemicals were very poisonous (Fig. 1(d)). After thirty min, the sperm motility in these test mediums began to diminish.

Table 5. Concentration of Free CH₂О in the Water Extracts from Textile Samples

Table 6. The Sperm Test Measured the Toxicity Index of Textile Aqueous Extracts

Fig. 1. Dependence of sperm motor activity (m, conventional units) on exposure time (t, cycle; one cycle = 900 sec): (a) for the specimens No.1 – woven fabric with 100% bleached cotton (red graph) and No.2 – woven fabric with 100% uniformly dyed in black colour cotton (green graph); (b) for the specimens No.4 – woven fabric with100% bleached linen (red graph) and No.5 – woven fabric with 100% acidification treated linen (green graph); (c) for the specimens No.6 – woven fabric with 100% bleached polyester (green graph) and No.8 – woven fabric with 100% bleached polyamide (red graph); (d) for the specimens No.10 – knit fabric along with bleached 54% of polyester, 39% of viscose and 7% of spandex (green graph) and No.11 – knit fabric along uniformly dyed in grey colour with 55% of polyester, 41% of viscose, 4% of spandex (red curve). Dependence for the reference (control) medium is the dotted graph.

Table 6 provides an overview of the test outcomes. According to GOST 32075 (2013) (Yudina et al. 2023) and GOST R 53485 (2009) (Skriabin et al. 2024), the following samples were determined to be toxic or extremely toxic: No. 2 (dyed cotton fabric), No. 9 (dyed cotton and polyester fabric), No. 10 (polyester and spandex bleached knit fabric), and No. 11 (dyed polyester and elastane knit fabric).

Aquatic extracts from textiles were used to block the movement of daphnids, which made it possible to calculate the acute immobility parameter. For the daphnid investigations, the ideal concentration of the textile specimen in the watery medium was determined using concentrations of the sample ranging from 0.01 to 0.09 g/mL. With each test case, three separate determinations were performed. To get an average value, the collected data were subjected to mathematical statistical processing.

Table 7. Daphnids Were Fully or Partially Immobilized in the Water-based Textile Extracts at 24-, 48-, 72-, and 96-h Post-experiment Commencement