Abstract
The usability of lavender stems along with red pine chips was investigated as raw materials in the production of particleboard. Medium-density particleboard was manufactured using urea formaldehyde glue at three different ratios for five different mixture groups containing lavender stems and red pine chips. Some physical and mechanical properties of the boards were investigated. According to the statistical studies of the results, decreasing the ratio of lavender stems between board groups reduced the thickness swelling value. The internal bond strength, bending strength, and elastic modulus values of all board groups (%10-12 glued) were above the minimum values set by the TS-EN-312 standard for general purpose particleboard. According to these results, either lavender stems alone or together with red pine chips are suitable for use as a new raw material for particleboard manufacturing.
Download PDF
Full Article
Properties of Particleboard Produced from Red Pine (Pinus brutia) Chips and Lavender Stems
H. Hüseyin Taş* and Yılmaz Sevinçli
The usability of lavender stems along with red pine chips was investigated as raw materials in the production of particleboard. Medium-density particleboard was manufactured using urea formaldehyde glue at three different ratios for five different mixture groups containing lavender stems and red pine chips. Some physical and mechanical properties of the boards were investigated. According to the statistical studies of the results, decreasing the ratio of lavender stems between board groups reduced the thickness swelling value. The internal bond strength, bending strength, and elastic modulus values of all board groups (%10-12 glued) were above the minimum values set by the TS-EN-312 standard for general purpose particleboard. According to these results, either lavender stems alone or together with red pine chips are suitable for use as a new raw material for particleboard manufacturing.
Keywords: Waste of lavender plants; Red pine chips; Urea formaldehyde glue; Particleboard; Mechanical properties
Contact information: Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering 32260, West- Campus, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey; *Corresponding author: huseyintas@sdu.edu.tr
INTRODUCTION
Particleboards are board materials produced as panel shapes by compressing glued or non-glued lignocellulosic fibrous materials (wood, sawdust, etc.) by means of hydraulic presses (Hofstrand et al. 1984). The products are used as partition walls or floor and wall coverings in the construction sector (Kozlowski and Helwig 1998).
The manufacture of modern particleboards goes back to early 19th century. The production started with the utilization of planer shavings and sawdust and continued with the use of logs of all kinds. The demand for wood in the forest product industry has grown over the years with increasing population and new application areas, which has caused a significant pressure on standing forest resources. Moreover, these events have stimulated a rise in the price of wood as a raw material. This has motivated people in the forest industry and the scientists studying in this field to find alternative biomasses or raw materials. Therefore, alternative fibers such as agrofibers and other plant fibers, recycling, more efficient conversion technologies, and new products will play an important role in the wood fiber supply/demand map of the future.
The use of agricultural waste materials (agrofibers) as a raw material in the manufacture of composites was one of the solutions that came to the minds of many researchers. The use of these materials may benefit both the environment and socioeconomic development since these waste materials are mostly ploughed into the soil or burnt in the field. Studies have been conducted to find the suitable agrofibers for composite manufacturing (Bektaş et al. 2005). Some of the agrofibers studied so far are cotton and hemp stalks (Kollmann 1966), groundnut shell (Jain et al. 1967), bagasse (Mitlin 1968; Turreda 1983), grain-wheat straw (Mosesson 1980; Han et al. 1998), bamboo (Rowell and Norimoto 1998), tea plant waste (Nemli and Kalaycioğlu 1997; Yalinkiliç et al. 1998; Filiz et al. 2011; Batiancela et al. 2014), sunflower stalks (Khristova et al. 1998; Bektaş et al. 2005), vine branches (Ntalos and Grigoriou 2002), castor stalks (Grigoriou and Ntalos 2001), corn stalks (Güler et al. 2001), wheat straw and corn stalks (Wang and Sun 2002), kiwi branches (Nemli et al. 2003), peanut shell (Batalla et al. 2005), almond shells (Gürü et al. 2006), agricultural waste (Arslan et al. 2007), giant reed (Garcia-Ortuna et al. 2011), kenaf (Xu et al. 2013), kenaf and rubberwood (Abdul Halip et al. 2014), sunflower seed husks (Cosreanue et al. 2015), and hazelnut husk (Avcı et al. 2013).
Some of these wastes have a hard and crusty structure (like nuts and peanut shells), some have thin and soft structure in the shape of stalks (like sunflower, wheat, barley, rice straw), and some have hard and woody structure in the shape of trimmed tree branch (like apple and grape branches). It is known that these structural differences change physical and mechanical properties of particleboards dramatically. Scientists have investigated the usability of many herbal wastes in the production of particleboards by considering fibrous structure of these herbal wastes similar to raw wood material and reached significant results.
Zhang et al. (2011) reported that they could produce particleboards from wheat straw that met minimum international standards by adding emulsifiable pMDI to urea formaldehyde glue at different ratios. Batiancela et al. (2014) reported that they could produce general-purpose particleboards from waste tea leaves with Paraserianthes falcataria (moluccan sau) wood pieces at a ratio of 20 to 50% with 8% glue. Guler et al. (2008) reported that they could produce 3-layer general purpose particleboards from chips obtained from peanut branches by mixing them with 25% of black pine chips. Guler et al. (2006) reported that they could produce 3-layer general purpose particleboards with chips derived from red pine and sunflower stalks at different ratios by mixing with UF glue. Li et al.(2010) reported that they could produce particleboards that are appropriate to the characteristics of the M-2 class of American standards by using rice straws in different geometries.
According to these studies, with the combination of wood chips, modification of agrofibers, and the addition of some moisture repellant, it is feasible to produce particleboard from the wastes of agricultural crops having the physical and mechanical properties as required by related standards. Several countries utilize agrofibers for the production of particleboard or other composite panels. So far there are at least 30 plants that utilize agricultural waste materials in the production of particleboards around the World (Bektaş et al. 2005).
Turkey faces the problem of limited raw wood materials due to the reduction of forest areas, as in many other countries. Turkish scientists as well as scientist around the world continues to research the availability of the production of particleboard to solve this problem.
The leaves of the lavender plant are used for the cosmetic industry after the harvest in Kuyucak Village of Keçiborlu District of Isparta Province, Turkey. However, approximately a 1700-decares field is being utilized for lavender farming in Turkey, generating roughly 1000 to 2000 tons of waste lavender stalks every year (Anonymous 2015).
In this study, the usability of waste lavender stems was investigated in the production of particleboard industry as a raw material; the utilization of such a raw material in combination with other woody species available in the country could yield benefits both economically and environmentally.
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials and Methods
Red pine chips, UF glue, and 20% ammonium chloride solution were obtained from Isparta Orma Company (Turkey). Waste lavender stems, which were dried under natural weather conditions, were obtained from Kuyucak Village of Keçiborlu District of Isparta, Turkey. Waste lavender chips (LP) and red pine chips (RP) were dried in oven at a temperature of 102± 3°C and humidity of 2% to 3%.
The chemical analysis performed by Suleyman Demirel University (S.D.U.) Industrial Engineering Labratories is shown in Table 1, the characteristics of the UF adhesive are shown in Table 2, and the experimental ratios used for manufacturing are given in Table 3.
Table 1. Chemical Analysis of Waste Lavender Stems and Red Pine Chips
To eliminate some impurities such as sugar, as shown in Table 1, all wood chips first were allowed to sit in 1% NaOH solution for 24 h, then washed again with water and finally dried in an oven in the first drying conditions. The sugars that are found in the chemical structures of particleboards have potential to prevent the adhesion of particleboards with resin,
Table 2. Characteristics of Urea Formaldehyde Adhesive
LP, RP, and UF glues were weighed on precision scales and mixed homogeneously before being used in gluing to form the mixture groups. The mixture was then compressed by cold pressing in a mold with a rectangular section before the hot-pressing process. The properties related to the hot-pressing machine and the boards are given in Table 4. After being removed from the hot press and cooling, the boards were cut to dimensions of 50 mm by 50 mm, according to TS-EN-325 (1999), and to 50 mm by 300 mm, according to TS-EN 326-1 (1999). Then, they were prepared for experimentation by scaling them with a caliper (Mitutoyo, P&G Industrial Co., Ltd., China) with a sensitivity of 0.01 mm convenient with EN-325 (1999).
Table 3. Chip and Glue Amounts for Experimental Groups
Table 4. Properties of Hot-Press Machine and Boards
The thickness swelling of the experimental particleboards after soaking in water for 24 h was determined in accordance with EN-317 (1996). The boards, measured from their four corners, were placed into a container filled with clean and stable water with a pH value of 7 at 20±1 °C. The boards did not touch the bottom or top of the container or each other and were situated 25±1 mm below the top of the container. The increase in thickness of the boards was calculated using Eq. 1 after removing them from the water and drying their surfaces .
(1)
In Eq. 1, TS is the thickness swelling of the test samples (%), Ws is the thickness of the test samples after being soaked in water (mm), and Ds is the thickness of the dry test samples (mm).
The bending strength and modulus of elacticity of the particleboards were determined in accordance with EN-310 (1996). The thicknesses were measured from the intersection points of the corners, whereas the widths were measured from the middle point of the lengths and determined by an experimental device , in accordance with TS-EN-325 (1999). During the load test experiments, a universal testing device (Zwick/Roell Z050, Germany) with a 5000-kg capacity was used, and the load was applied at a constant rate (6 mm/min). A load was applied at a constant rate throughout the experiment. The flexural strength of the experimental samples based on the maximum force values was calculated according to Eq. 2 with 1% sensitivity. The bending amounts were determined with 1% accuracy through the mid-points, and the modulus of elasticity was calculated in accordance with Eq. 3,
(2)
(3)
where MOR is the bending strength (N/mm²), Lmax is the maximum load at the breaking point (N), Dis the distance between supports (mm), w is the width of the sample (mm), t is the thickness of the sample (mm), MOE is the modulus of elasticity (N/mm²), L is the load applied under the elasticity limit (N), and d is the deformation occuring against the load in the sample (mm)
The internal bond strength (IB) of the particleboards was determined in accordance with EN-319 (1996). The dimensions of the boards were measured by a caliper gauge, then glued to an aluminum apparatus with adhesive; after completion of the adhesion, a uniform force was applied to the boards until the breaking point, where all the boards were connected to the gripping nozzles of the test device in the pulling direction vertical to the surface. The tensile strength of the boards vertical to the surface was calculated in accordance with Eq. 4 using the obtained maximum force values,
(4)
where IBS is the internal bond strengths (N/mm²), Lmax is the maximum force at the breaking point (N), and A is the cross-sectional area of the test sample (mm²).
Data for each test were statistically analyzed using the SPSS 20.0 software program. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used (α≤0.05) to test for significant difference between factors. When the ANOVA indicated a significant difference among factors, the compared values were employed to Duncan test to identify which groups were significantly different from other groups.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The average and standard deviation values of thickness swelling, bending strength, internal bond strength, and modulus of elasticity of the various experimental groups are given in Table 5.
As indicated in the table, the average thickness swelling values were found to be highest (84.26%) in group E particleboards with 6% glue and lowest (36.14%) in group A particleboards with 12% glue. Bending strength values were found to be highest (14.66 N/mm2) in group A particleboards with 12% glue and lowest (6.86 N/mm2) in group E particleboards with 6% glue. Modulus of elasticity values were found to be highest (1712 N/mm2) in group A particleboards with 12% glue and lowest (1024 N/mm2) in group E particleboards with 6% glue. The internal bond strength values were found to be highest (0.51 N/mm2) in group A particleboards with 12% glue and lowest (0.10 N/mm2) in group E particle boards with 6% glue.
Table 5. Average and Standard Deviation Values of Thickness Swelling, Bending Strength, Internal Bond Strength, and Modulus of Elasticity of Various Experimental Groups
Table 6 shows the results of multiple variance analyses conducted to see whether there are significant differences detected between experimental groups.
According to the variance analysis in Table 6, the differences between all experimental groups are significant at 0.05% level in terms of mixture and glue ratio. The results of the Duncan test to determine the importance of the smallest differences between the groups that have significant relationships are presented in Tables 7 and 8.
Table 6. Variance Analysis of Thickness Swelling, Bending Strength, Internal Bond Strength, and Modulus of Elasticity
Table 7. Duncan Mean Separation Tests for Mixture Ratios
Table 8. Duncan Mean Separation Tests for Glue Ratio
Considering the data given in Table 5, the experiment results related to thickness swelling rates of particleboards after 24 h were found to be negatively associated with reduction of glue amount used in the production process, and positively associated with increased amount of lavender chips. In other words, it can be said that the increased amount of glue used in the production of particleboards proportionately reduced the swelling value, whereas waste lavender chips proportionately increased the swelling value.
Particleboards should have maximum thickness swelling values of 15% and 14% for 24 h immersions for load-bearing and heavy-duty load-bearing applications, respectively (TS EN 312 2005). In general, the observed thickness swelling for particleboards were higher than 14%.
In experimental studies using different agricultural wastes, the thickness swelling values of chipboards after keeping them 24 h in the water are reported to be reaching the highest levels in a similar manner. For example, banana peels 44.8% (Topbaşlı 2013), greenhouse wastes 117% (Karakuş 2007), nut shells 19.6% (Copur et al. 2007), cotton stalks 35% (Guler and Ozen 2004), tobacco and tea leaves 60.7% (Kalycioglu 1992), and peanut shells 19.84% (Guler et al. 2008) are some of these wastes used in the experiments. These high values may be related to the fact that no wax or other hydrophobic substance was used during particleboard manufacture. Water-repellent chemicals such as paraffin could be utilized in the particleboard production to improve these properties. Heat teratment, use of phenolic resins, coating of the particleboard surfaces, and acetylating of particles can also improve the water repellency of the panels (Rowell and Norimoto 1988; Guntekin et al. 2008; Ayrılmış et al. 2009; Guler and Buyuksarı 2011).
According to the elasticity module, internal bond strength and bending strength experiment results, which determine the mechanical properties of particleboards, were found to be positively associated with increased amount of glue used in the production and reduced amount of waste lavender chips (Table 5). The strength created by the chips by sticking to each other with UF glue was instrumental in this change. It was also observed that the amount of inorganic matter and pH values of the waste of lavender chips were also effective parameters for strength and weakness of adhesion.
The standard method TS-EN 312 (2005) recommends a minimum MOE, MOR, and IB values of 1600 N/mm2, 11.5 N/mm2, and 0.24 N/mm2 for the particleboards manufactured for general purpose usages, respectively. According to the results of this study, all particleboards produced with 10 to 12% glue provided the minimum conditions required by the standards. However, it was determined that since pH value and inorganic matter content in lavender chips was greater than the pH value and inorganic matter content in red pine chips, mechanical properties of all particleboards in experiment groups except the group consists of particleboards made of 100% red pine chips were adversely affected by lavender chips. Similarly, mechanical properties of particleboards produced in experimental studies with various agricultural wastes have been reported to be reduced (Bektas et al.2005; Nemli et al. 2008, 2009; Guler et al. 2008; Ayrilmis et al. 2009; Guler and Buyuksarı 2011). The boards having the lower mechanical properties tested in this study can be used as insulating material in buildings because such materials would not be subjected to any mechanical stress. These particleboards could be improved by coating the particleboard surfaces. Several resarch efforts showed that coating of the particleboard surfaces can improve mechanical properties of the panels (Lee and Kim 1985; Chow et al. 1996; Nemli et al. 2003; Nemli et al. 2005; Guler and Buyuksarı 2011).
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, some mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of medium-density particleboards produced with various lavender plant wastes, red pine chip, and glue ratios were determined, and their compliance with EN-312-2 (2005) standards was investigated.
- According to the statistical assessments of experimental results, an increase in the ratio of waste lavender stems found in the chip mixture increased the thickness swelling in particleboards.
- The internal bond strength, bending strength, and elastic modulus values of 10 to 12% glued board groups were above the values set by TS EN 312 (2005) standards for general purpose particleboard in dry-condition. The boards having lower mechanical properties tested in this study can be used as insulating material in buildings, because such materials wold not be subjected to any mechanical stress.
- According to these results, both waste lavender stems alone or together with red pine chips will be able to be used as a raw material in particleboard manufacturing, and waste lavender stems used for this purpose will contribute to a reduction of environmental pollution.
REFERENCES CITED
Anonymous. (2015). http://www.tarimtv.gov.tr/HD5150_turkiye-nin-lavantasi-bu-koyden-cikiyor-.html.
Arslan, M. B., Karakuş, B., and Güntekin, E. (2007). “Fiber and particleboard production from agricultural wastes,” Bartın Journal of Faculty of Forestry 9(12), 54-62.
Avcı, E., Candan, Z., and Gönültaş, O. (2013). “Performance properties of biocomposites from renewable natural resource,” Journal of Composite Materials 48(26), 3237-3242. DOI: 10.1177/0021998313508595
Ayrilmiş, N., Buyuksari, U., Avci, E., and Koc, E. (2009). “Utilization of pine (Pinus pinea L.) cone in manufacture of wood based composite,” Forest Ecology and Management 259(1), 65-70.
Batalla, L., Nunez, A. J., and Marcovich, N. E. (2005). “Particleboard from peanut-shell flour,”Journal of Applied Polymer Science 97(3), 916-923. DOI: 10.1002/app.21847
Batiancela, M. A., Acda, M. N., and Cabangon, R. J. (2014). “Particleboard from waste tea leaves and wood particles,” Journal of Composite Materials 48(8), 911-916. DOI: 10.1177/0021998313480196
Bektaş, İ., Guler, C., Kalaycıoğlu, H., Mengeloğlu, F., and Nacar, M. (2005). “The manufacture of particleboard using sunflower stalks and poplar wood,” Journal of Composite Materials 39(5), 467-473. DOI: 10.1177/0021998305047098
Cosereanu, C., Brenci, L. M. N. G., Zeleniur, O. I., and Fatin, A. N. (2015). “Effect of particle size and geometry on the performance of single-layer and three-layer particleboard made from sunflower seed husks,” BioResources 10(1), 1127-1136. DOI: 10.15376/biores.10.1.1127-1136
Copur, Y., Guler, C., Akgul, M., and Tascioglu, C. (2007). “Some chemical properties of hazelnut and its suitability for particleboard production,” Build. Environ. 42, 2568-2572
Chow, P., Janowiak, J. J., and Price, E. W. (1996). “The internal bond and shear strength of hardwood veneered particleboard composites,” Wood Fiber Sci. 18(1)99-106.
EN-310 (1996). “Wood based panels, determination of modulus of elasticity in bending and bending strength,” European Standardization Committee, Brussels.
EN-317 (1996). “Particleboard and fibre boards, determination of swelling in thickness after immersion” European Standardization Committee, Brussels.
EN-319 (1996). “Particleboard and fibre boards –The determination of tensile strength perpendicular to plane of the board surface,” European Standardization Committee, Brussels.
Filiz, M., Usta, P., and Şahin, H. T. (2011). “Evaluation of some technical properties obtained from the participleboard with melamine urea formaldehyde glue, red pine and tea waste,” Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences 15(2), 88-93.
Garcia-Ortuna, T., Andreu-Rodriguez, J., Ferrandez-Garcia, M. T., Ferrandez-Villena, M., and Ferrandez-Garcia, C. E. (2011). “Evaluation of the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard made from giant reed (Arundo donax L.),” BioResources 6(1), 477-486. DOI: 10.15376/biores.477-486
Grigoriou, A. H., and Ntalos, G. A. (2001). “The potential use of castor stalks as a lignocellulosic resource for particleboards,”Industrial Crops and Products 13, 209-218. DOI: 10.1016/S0926-6690(00)00078-9
Güler, C., Özen, R., and Kalaycıoğlu, H. (2001). “Some of the technological properties of cotton (Gossypium hirsitum L.) stalks particleboards,” Journal of Science and Engineering 4(1), 99-108.
Guler, C., and Ozen, R. (2004). “Some properties of particleboards made from cotton stalks (Gossypium hirsitum L.),” Holz Roh Werkst. 62, 40-43.
Guler, C., Bektas, I., and Kalaycioglu, H. (2006). “The experimental particleboard manufacture from sunflower stalks (Helianthus annuus L.) and Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia Ten.),” Forest Prod. J. 56(4), 56-60.
Guler, C., Copur, Y., and Tascioğlu, C. (2008). “The manufacture of particleboards using mixture of peanut hull (Arachis hypoqaea L.) and European Black pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) wood chips,” Bioresource Technology 99, 2893-2897.
Guler, C., and Buyuksari, U. (2011). “Effect of production parameters on the physical and mechanical properties of particleboards made from peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) hull,” BioResources 6(4), 5027-5036.
Guntekin, E., Uner, B., Sahin, H. T., and Karakus, B. (2008). “Pepğer stalks (Capsicum annuum) as raw material for particleboard manufacturing,” Journal of Applied Sciences 8(12), 2333-2336.
Gürü, M., Tekeli, S., and Bilici, I. (2006). “Manufacturing of urea-formaldehyde based composite particleboard from almond shell,” Materials and Design 27(10), 1148-1151. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2005.03.003
Halip, J. A., Tahir, P. M., Choo, A. C. Y., and Ashaari, Z. (2014). “Effect of kenaf parts on the performance of single-layer and three-layer particleboard made from kenaf and rubberwood,” BioResources 9(1), 1401-1416. DOI: 10.15376/biores.9.1.1401-1416
Han, G., Zhang, C., Zhang, D., Umenura, K., and Kawai, S. (1998). “Upgrading of urea formaldehyde-bonded reed and wheat straw particleboard using silane coupling agents,” Journal of Wood Science 44, 282-286. DOI: 10.1007/BF00581308
Hofstrand, A. D., Moslemi, A. A., and Garcia, J. F. (1984). “Curing characteristics of wood particles from nine Northern Rocky Mountain species mixed with Portland cement,” Forest Products Journal 34(7), 57-61.
Jain, N. C., Gupta, R. C., and Jain, D. K. (1967). “Particleboard from groundnut shells,” in: Proceedings of 11th Silviculture Conference, India, pp.141-147.
Kalaycioglu, H. (1992). “Utilization of annual plant residues in the production of particleboard,” In: Proc.ORENCO 92, 1st Forest Product Symposium, Trobzon-uiTurkey, pp. 288-292.
Karakuş, B. (2007). The Evaluation of Various Herbal Greenhouse Wastes in Particleboard Production, M.S. thesis, Department of Forest Engineering, Institute of Science, Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey.
Khristova, P., Yussifou, N., Gabir, S., Glavche, I., and Osman, Z. (1998). “Particleboard from sunflower stalks and tannin modified UF resin,” Cellulose Chemistry and Technology 32, 327-337.
Kollmann, F. (1966). Holzpanplatten und Holzspanformlinge Rohstoffe, Herstellung, Plankosten Qalitatskotrolle USW, Holzspanwerkstoffe, Berlin.
Kozlowski, R., and Helwig, M. (1998). “Lignocellulosic polymer composites,” in: Science and Technology of Polymers and Advanced Materials, P. N. Prasad (ed.), Plenum Press, New York, pp.679-698.
Lee, P., and Kim, C. S. (1985).”Bending strength of veneered particleboard composite with variations in shelling ratio and veneer grain angle,” Wood Sci.Technol. 13(6), 23-25.
Li, X., Cai Z., Winandy J. E., and Basta A. H. (2010). “Selected properties of particleboard panels manufactured from rice strawsof different geometries,” Bioresource Technology 101, 4662-4666.
Mitlin, L. (1968). Particleboard Manufacture and Application, Novello and Co. Ltd., Kent, UK.
Mosesson, J. G. (1980). “The processing and use of waste straw as a constructional material,”Conservation & Recycling 3, 389-412.
Nemli, G., Kırcı, H., Serdar, B., and Ay, N. (2003). “Suitability of kiwi (Actinidia sinensis Planch.) prunings for particleboard manufacturing,” Ind. Crop Prod. 17(1), 39-46.
Nemli, G., Ors, Y., and Kalayciaglu, H. (2005). “The choosing of suitable decorative surface coating material types for interior end use applications of particleboard,” Constr. Build. Mater. 19, 307-312.
Nemli, G., Yildiz, S., and Gezer, E. D. (2008). “The potential for using the needle litter of Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) as a raw material for particleboard manufacturing,” Bioresource Technology 99, 6054-6058.
Nemli, G., Demirel, S., Gumuskaya, E., Aslan, M., and Acar, C. (2009). “Feasibility of incorporating wastegrass clippings (Lolium perenne L.) in particleboards composites,” Waste Management 29, 1129-1131.
Ntalos, G. A., and Grigoriou, A. H. (2002). “Characterization and utilisation of vine prunings as a wood substitute for particleboard production,” Industrial Crops and Products 16, 59-68. DOI: 10.1016/S0926-6690(02)00008-0
Rowell, R. M., and Norimoto, M. (1988). “Dimensional stability of bamboo particleboard made from acetylated particles,” Mokuzai Gakkaishi 34(7), 627-629.
TS-EN-312 (2005). “Particleboard, chapter 2: The properties of general purpose particleboard used in dry environment,” Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara, Turkey.
TS-EN-325 (1999). “Wooden based panels – The determination of the sizes of test pieces,” Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara, Turkey.
TS-EN-326-1 (1999). “Wooden based panels – Sampling cutting and examination. Part 1: The selection and cutting of experiment samplings and presentation of experiment results,” Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara, Turkey.
Topbaşlı, B. (2013). The Examination of Mechanical and Physical Properties of Particleboard Produced from Waste Banana Peel, M.S. thesis, Institute of Science, Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey.
Turreda, L. D. (1983). “Wood and wood-bagasse particleboard bonded with urea formaldehyde and polyvinylacetate/isocynate adhesives,” USDA Technol. J. 8(3), 66-78.
Wang, D. H., and Sun, X. Z. S. (2002). “Low density particleboard from wheat straw and corn pith,” Industrial Crops and Products 15(1), 43-50. DOI: 10.1016/S0926-6690(01)00094-2
Xu, X., Wu, Q., and Zhou, D. (2013). “Influences of layered structure on physical and
mechanical properties of kenaf core particleboard,” BioResources 8(4), 5219-5234. DOI: 10.15376/biores.8.4.5219-5234
Yalinkiliç, M. K., Imamura, Y., Takahashi, M., Kalaycioğlu, H., Nemli, G., Demirci, Z., and Özdemir, T. (1988). “Biological, physical and mechanical properties of particleboard manufactured from waste tea leaves,” International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 41(1), 75-84. DOI: 10.1016/S0964-8305(98)80010-3
Zhang, Y., Gu, J., Tan, H., Zhu, L., and Weng, X. (2011). “Wheat straw particleboard,” BioResources6(1), 464-476. DOI: 10.15376/biores.6.1.464-476
Article submitted: February 23, 2105; Peer review completed: July 9, 2015; Revised version received and accepted: September 23, 2015; Published: October 6, 2015.
DOI: 10.15376/biores.10.4.7865-7876