An analysis of labor and capital productivity in the Malaysian timber sector

Ratnasingam, J., Ark, C. K., Mohamed, S., Liat, L. C., Ramasamy, G., and Senin, A. L. (2017). "An analysis of labor and capital productivity in the Malaysian timber sector," BioRes. 12(1), 1430-1446.

Abstract

The remarkable transformation of the Malaysian timber sector from a net-importer to a multi-billion-dollar export-oriented sector has become a success model for many other resource-rich countries throughout the world. In view of the increasing socioeconomic importance of the timber sector in this country, the productivity performance of the six major timber sub-sectors was investigated in this study. Productivity is defined as the ratio of output to input and was analyzed from the year 2010 through 2014. The productivity performance was evaluated based on certain input factors, namely labor and capital. Generally, the productivity of the timber sector can be regarded as stagnating. Furthermore, the value-added was affected due to high reliance on labor for production. Among the factors that account for this lack of productivity growth are the increased competition in the international market, small domestic market, improper industrial development policies, poor adoption of technology, and the high dependency on human capital.

Download PDF

Full Article

An Analysis of Labor and Capital Productivity in the Malaysian Timber Sector

Jegatheswaran Ratnasingam,^a,* Chin Khoon Ark,^a Shukri Mohamed,^a Lim Choon Liat,^a,b Geetha Ramasamy,^a,* and Abdul Latib Senin ^a

Keywords: Timber sector; Productivity; Value-added; Labor; Capital

Contact information: a: Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; b: Malaysian Wood Moulding and Joinery Council (MWMJC), Tingkat 19, Menara PGRM, 8, Jalan Pudu Ulu, Cheras 56100, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia;

* Corresponding authors: jegaratnasingam@yahoo.com; gita209@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION

Since its transformation from an agricultural-based economy, Malaysia’s manufacturing sector has been the key engine of economic growth for over half of a century. The significant contribution of the manufacturing sector to Malaysia’s economic performance is proven by its increased contribution towards the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) (Bachtiar et al. 2015). Similarly, the Malaysian timber products’ manufacturing sector has gained prominence over the last few decades. The country is endowed with vast forested land with resources rich in diversity, and its timber industry ranges from the primary processing, namely logging, sawmilling, veneer and plywood, and panel products industries to downstream processing, particularly furniture and furniture components, builders’ joinery and carpentry (BJC), and molding industries. This vast diversity of sub-sectors is why the timber industry has emerged as one of the fastest growing manufacturing sectors within the Malaysian economy (Menon 2000; Woon and Norini 2002; National Timber Industry Policy 2009; Zakaria et al. 2014).

The impressive growth of the Malaysian timber sector is well acknowledged globally. The strong encouragement and relentless efforts by the government have transformed the timber industry from a domestic consumption into a multi-billion-dollar export-oriented industry at the international level. The implementation of a series of Industrial Master Plans (IMPs) since 1986 has provided opportunities for the timber industry, particularly the downstream processing, to develop into a well-established manufacturing hub in the region. As a result, the foreign exchange earnings, as well as employment opportunities, have significantly increased over the years (National Timber Industry Policy 2009).

However, over the years, the rate of expansion of the timber sector in Malaysia has slowed, and its contribution towards the nation’s economy has also decreased in comparison to the other manufacturing sectors (Ministry of International Trade and Industry 2014). Inevitably, an in-depth study of the driving factors and future growth trajectory of the timber sector is warranted. In this context, the productivity growth and its contribution towards the sectoral growth need to be evaluated. Productivity is described as a basic relationship between output and input, which shows an extent of technical efficiency in the production and a source of competitiveness (Diewert and Nakamura 2005). According to Salehirad and Sowlati (2006), productivity performance influences economic growth because profits seem to escalate when there is a gain in productivity.

Previous studies on resource-based sectors in other countries have shown that production factors, including raw materials, labor, and capital, have the strongest influences on the productivity and industrial growth (Sriyani 1991; Rahmah et al. 2012; Rosenkranz et al. 2015). With regards to Malaysia, far too little attention has been given to the productivity performance of the timber sector. Although a study by Ratnasingam et al. (2013) on the extent of innovation in the Malaysian furniture industry had shown an indirect link to productivity growth, the literature available on this topic is scarce (Pang et al. 2015). Against the background of a huge industry, contributing more than RM 22 billion in export earnings in 2015, and with almost 3,000 manufacturing establishments employing nearly 180,000 workers, the questions of what drives the industry’s growth and the relative performance of the various timber sub-sectors has not been well researched. In this context, the need to examine the productivity performances of the various timber sub-sectors in Malaysia is necessary to benchmark and identify challenges that could hamper future growth.

The objective of this study is to provide an analysis of the productivity and value-addition performance of the various sub-sectors within the Malaysian timber industry, and to illustrate its growth trajectory in the future. The results from this study will serve as a useful benchmark for the productivity performance of the timber industry and assist policy-makers and industrialists in taking the necessary remedial measures to ensure future competitiveness within the industry.

METHODOLOGY

Six major timber sub-sectors were selected for the study, which together accounted for 97% of total production in the overall timber sector. The timber sub-sectors studied were categorized using the Harmonized Community Description and Coding System (HS codes), i.e. (1) joinery wood products (16222); (2) particleboard and fiberboard (16212); (3) wooden and cane furniture (31001); (4) sawmilling of wood (16100); (5) veneer sheet and plywood (16211); and (6) builders’ joinery and carpentry (16221).

Data Sources

The sectoral data required for this study was extracted from the Annual Survey of the Manufacturing Industries that was published by the Department of Statistics of Malaysia (DOSM), from the years 2010 to 2014.

Table 1. Data Set of Timber Sub-Sectors from 2010-2014

The data were compiled using the sectoral HS codes, i.e., (1) joinery wood products (16222); (2) particleboard and fiberboard (16212); (3) wooden and cane furniture (31001); (4) sawmilling of wood (16100); (5) veneer sheet and plywood (16211); and (6) builders’ joinery and carpentry (16221). The data were also verified against the timber statistics compiled by the Malaysian Timber Industry Board (MTIB) and the Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities (MPIC) to ensure consistency. The data set compiled for each timber sub-sector includes the number of mills, input value, output value, number of workers, salary, and the value of assets (capital) at each year’s end, which is presented in Table 1. Prior to 2010, the data sets available for the various timber sub-sectors were incomplete and hence, were not taken into consideration in this study.

Measurement of Productivity and Value Added

Productivity is based on the input-output concept, which shows the efficiency at which output is produced per unit input. Productivity can simply be determined, via Eq. 1.

(1)

The productivity growth of an industrial sector can be analyzed through a series of indices. These indices are based on the ratio analysis of various inputs and outputs, which reflect the productivity growth from two distinct categories, namely the gross output and the value-added based measures (Sauian et al. 2013). The value-added based measures of productivity, are however more relevant to the timber sector, as the extent of value-addition is the key driver of growth and profitability in the sector (Zakaria et al. 2014; Pang et al. 2015; Ratnasingam 2015).

The value-added is the measure of the difference between output value and input value, and it does not take into account the intermediate inputs. The value-added measurement is used to show the effectiveness and efficiency at which resources are used. Equation 2 shows the calculation for value-added.

(2)

In the timber sector, however, the labor and capital inputs have a stronger influence on productivity and value-addition compared to raw materials input. In Malaysia, the wood materials used in the domestic market is not subjected to any quality grading requirement, as the Malayan Grading Rules is only applicable for exported sawn timber. Therefore, the quality and cost of wood raw material is very much on a willing buyer-seller basis, which leads to somewhat standard raw material for all the sub-sectors. This is because of the fact that raw material is a common factor to all timber sub-sectors, while the nature of labor force and capital (technology) may differ according to the various sub-sectors. On this account, productivity growth is significantly influenced by labor and capital as opposed to the raw material input in the timber sector (Ratnasingam et al. 2013).

The value of timber products is derived from the raw material, processing technologies, and product design. It has been shown that increasing the product value through the raw material is marginal and unsustainable as the raw material is also available to manufacturers in other countries. In this context, value increment through labor and capital inputs often leads to higher competitiveness and sustainable growth (Choong and Tham 1995; Saujan 2013). The conventional measures of labor productivity and capital productivity are shown in Eqs. 3 and 4, respectively.

(3)

(4)

Capital turnover measures the efficiency of the industry in terms of utilizing the capital (i.e., materials, work in progress, machinery, technology, etc.) to produce final products. The calculation is as shown in Eq. 5.

(5)

The labor share reflects the proportion of value added that is allocated to the labor cost (Eq. 6). It essentially shows the extent to which the workers contribute towards the value-added through their skills.

(6)

Equation 7 defines the capital intensity, which reflects the degree at which capital is used to reduce its dependence on workers, or the extent of capital utilization within the industry.

(7)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of this study are presented in four parts: (1) the productivity performance of Malaysian timber sub-sectors, (2) labor input, (3) capital input, and (4) industrial implications.

Productivity Performance of the Malaysian Timber Sub-sectors

Productivity, which measures the efficiency of resource consumption in an industry, is the most important driver of industrial growth. Generally, the efficient use of resources will minimize the waste left over in the production processes and subsequently lead to a higher productivity. Figure 1 shows the productivity of the six timber sub-sectors in Malaysia. It is clear that the productivity growth in the various timber sub-sectors is stagnating, although the joinery wood products sub-sector has shown a comparatively higher productivity growth. This result reaffirms the argument that the productivity growth in the various timber sub-sectors in Malaysia is driven by incremental capital inputs, rather than actual productivity gains. Ratnasingam et al. (2013) suggested a similar observation, that the stagnating productivity has an adverse effect on the value-added growth within the furniture making industry.

Productivity is gained when the output increases, and the input reduces or remains constant. However, as shown in Table 3, it is clear that the output increment in the various timber sub-sectors is contributed by the increasing factor inputs, such as labor, capital, and raw materials. Sauian (2002) pointed out that such productivity growth is not sustainable in the long-term, as incremental inputs do not lead to industrial competitiveness in the global market.

Fig. 1. Productivity performance for the six major timber sub-sectors (16222- joinery wood products; 16212- particleboard and fiberboard; 31001- wooden and cane furniture; 16100- sawmilling of wood; 16211- veneer sheet and plywood; and 16221- builders’ joinery carpentry)

Value-added

The value-added is a reflection of the profits gained from the production processes. In the sawmilling sub-sector, the product yield determines the level of profitability (Pang et al. 2015), but in other sub-sectors, the profitability is closely linked to the perceived value of the products. An analysis of the value-added growth for the various timber sub-sectors is presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Value-added growth for the six major timber sub-sectors (16222- joinery wood products; 16212- particleboard and fiberboard; 31001- wooden and cane furniture; 16100- sawmilling of wood; 16211- veneer sheet and plywood; and 16221- builders’ joinery carpentry)

Labor Input

Labor productivity

The value-added per employee is a good measure of labor productivity in an industry (Rahmah et al. 2012; Nayak and Patra 2013; Auzina-Emsina 2014; Pang et al. 2015). Generally, increasing the labor productivity is important to enhance the competitiveness of the industry. The labor productivity growth for the various sub-sectors of timber industry in this study is shown in Fig. 3. It is clear from the histograms that the value-added per employee in the various sub-sectors is stagnating; underlining the fact that labor force is no longer a competitive advantage to the industry. Sauian (2002) explained that the increment in output with constant input subsequently increased productivity. Another key issue is that the extent of value-addition within the industry was affected due to its heavy reliance on labor in the production process (Rahmah et al. 2012; Bachtiar et al. 2015). Several studies have suggested that reducing the dependency on labor through automation and mechanization may boost value-addition and productivity (Bush and Sinclair 1989; Salehirad and Sowlati 2006; Zhang and Rao 2006; National Timber Industry Policy 2009; Auzina-Emsina 2014). This is evident from Fig. 3, which shows that the panel products manufacturing sub-sector, which has the highest level automation and mechanization in the timber industry, also has the highest value-added per employee.

Fig. 3. Labor productivity for the six major timber sub-sectors (16222- joinery wood products; 16212- particleboard and fiberboard; 31001- wooden and cane furniture; 16100- sawmilling of wood; 16211- veneer sheet and plywood; and 16221- builders’ joinery carpentry)

Labor share

The contribution of labor cost to the value-added is shown in Fig. 4. Although the labor cost to value-added in the particleboard and fiberboard-manufacturing sector was the highest among the various timber sub-sectors, the overall trends among all of the sub-sectors appear to be constant. This may be the most significant after-effect of employing contract workers, as their skills retention suffers due to their short-term tenures (Russell 2015). Doubtless the flow of foreign workers into the Malaysian timber sector contributed to cheaper labor force, which lowered the production cost proportionately, facilitating rapid industrial growth (Bachtiar et al. 2015). Yet, it is imperative to emphasize the fact that the employment of foreign workers is not a long-term solution for the Malaysian timber industry, and efforts to shift towards a higher degree of automation and mechanization within the industry is necessary to ensure industrial competitiveness in the future (National Timber Industry Policy 2009).

Fig. 4. Labor share for the six major timber sub-sectors (16222- joinery wood products; 16212- particleboard and fiberboard; 31001- wooden and cane furniture; 16100- sawmilling of wood; 16211- veneer sheet and plywood; and 16221- builders’ joinery carpentry)

Relationship between labor productivity and salary per worker

A correlation analysis between the workers’ salary/wage and the labor productivity was performed. As shown in Table 2, the growth of the value-added per worker was faster than the salary/wage increment per worker. Although, Nayak and Patra (2013) argued that higher wages often resulted in better productivity, as suggested in the efficiency wage theory, in the case of the Malaysian timber industry, this argument does not hold true. This is possibly due to the fact that the industry is very much focused on contract manufacturing based on designs provided by the buyers. Hence, a change in design will often lead to higher value added per worker although the workers’ salary/wage has not increased (Ratnasingam 2015).

Another factor could also be the poor factory organization due to the predominantly family-ownership of the companies, which in many instances is not managed professionally (Ratnasingam and Ioras 2014). Poor management can also affect workers’ morale to an extent that productivity suffers. Unlike other manufacturing sectors, value is added to timber products during the production processes with marginal assistance from labor. Inevitably, it is pertinent to recognize that the labor inputs have been significantly reduced through automation and mechanization in some of the sub-sectors, such as the builders’ joinery and carpentry.

Table 2. Labor Productivity and Salary per Worker in the Six Major Timber Sub-Sectors

Table 3 reveals that there is no clear relationship between the workers’ salary and the labor productivity among the various timber sub-sectors. The absence of any trend indicates small variation in the relationship between the data, and suggests that the possibility of salary increment is too small to stimulate workers’ retention and skills-building.

Table 3. Relationship between Labor Productivity and Salary per Worker in the Six Major Timber Sub-Sectors

Capital Inputs

Capital productivity

Figure 5 shows the capital productivity in the six major timber sub-sectors. The findings indicated that the capital productivity growth pattern is markedly different than that of the labor productivity. Although, the ratio of the valued-added to capital was the highest for the manufacturing of wooden and cane furniture, the general pattern for all of the timber sub-sectors appears to suggest poor asset utilization levels. This is arguably due to the fact that investments into the timber sector are relatively slow, and the type of the products manufactured are also matured, stable priced products, which results in low value-adding (Ratnasingam 2015).

Fig. 5. Capital productivity for the six major timber sub-sectors (16222- joinery wood products; 16212- particleboard and fiberboard; 31001- wooden and cane furniture; 16100- sawmilling of wood; 16211- veneer sheet and plywood; and 16221- builders’ joinery carpentry)

Capital turnover

The capital turnover identifies the effectiveness of an industry in utilizing its capital input, which includes the raw materials, stocks, machinery, etc. A higher capital turnover would suggest that the industry is able to convert its capital into profits quickly, and vice-versa. Figure 6 illustrates that the capital turnover of the manufacturing of joinery wood products was the highest in comparison to the other timber sub-sectors. This is attributed to the quick turn-around of joinery products because of its larger market size, compared to the other products (Ratnasingam 2015).

Fig. 6. Capital turnover for the six major timber sub-sectors (16222- joinery wood products; 16212- particleboard and fiberboard; 31001- wooden and cane furniture; 16100- sawmilling of wood; 16211- veneer sheet and plywood; and16221- builders’ joinery carpentry)

Capital intensity

Capital intensity is described as a measure of the capital consumption compared to other input factors. The most common measurement of capital intensity is the ratio of capital to labor. The result shown in Fig. 7 indicated that the ratio of capital to labor for all the timber sub-sectors is relatively low, with the exception of the particleboard and fiberboard manufacturing sub-sector showing the highest value. There is a possibility that the various timber sub-sectors are showing an increasing tendency towards automation and mechanization with the intention to reduce reliance on labor (National Timber Industry Policy 2009; Bachtiar et al. 2015). The stagnating capital intensity suggests that although capacity is more important than labor, the use of capacity to boost productivity has not been realized in the Malaysian timber industry as it is an export-oriented sector dependent on the global market.

Fig. 7. Capital intensity for the six major timber sub-sectors (16222- joinery wood products; 16212- particleboard and fiberboard; 31001- wooden and cane furniture; 16100- sawmilling of wood; 16211- veneer sheet and plywood; and 16221- builders’ joinery carpentry)

Industrial Implications

Based on this study, it is apparent that the Malaysian timber sector, which comprises six major sub-sectors, namely joinery wood products, particleboard and fiberboard, wooden and cane furniture, sawmilling of wood, veneer sheet, and plywood, and builders’ joinery and carpentry, warrants close attention due to its stagnating productivity performance. Such a decrease in the productivity performance threatens to seriously undermine its competitiveness in the global market in the future.

Generally, the productivity performance of the various timber sub-sectors in the country is influenced by several factors (Ministry of International Trade and Industry 2014). These important factors include: (1) competition in the international markets, (2) policies and regulations, (3) market structure, (4) technology application, and (5) dependency on human capital.

Competition in the international markets

Malaysia is a well-established producer and exporter of tropical wood products in the world. However, the increasing competition in the global wood products market is beginning to take a toll on the growth of the Malaysian industry. The comparative advantage, due to cheap labor and the country’s ample supply of raw materials, is beginning to decrease rapidly. The emergence of China and Vietnam has severely eroded the country’s competitiveness in commodity-type products that sell based on price points. Therefore, as shown in this study, in order to remain competitive, there is an urgent need for the industry to move further along, in the value chain, towards manufacturing higher-value products (National Timber Industry Policy 2009).

Policies and regulations

Although the government should be praised for its far-sighted industrial policies that transformed the timber sector into a large value-added manufacturing hub, some of the policies implemented could have been better planned to ensure sustainable development. Notably, the industrial expansion plan should be closely regulated to ensure sufficient availability of the production factors (Ministry of International Trade and Industry 2014). Although on one side, investments (either domestic or foreign) should be encouraged, the unregulated expansion of industrial capacity will lead to large supply elasticity, hence forcing price points down. This can have negative consequences on profitability, especially during the period of an economic slowdown (Ratnasingam and Ioras 2015).

Market structure

With a population of about 30 million and a relatively low disposable income of RM 1,850 per household in 2015, the domestic market for timber products is relatively small (Department of Statistics 2015). As a result, 90% of the timber products that are manufactured in the country are exported, and Malaysia is among the leading exporter of various timber products globally. However, the export destination of Malaysian timber products is still focused on the traditional Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) markets, which are very competitive market places. With strength in commodity-type product manufacturing, Malaysian exporters are finding it difficult to compete in this marketplace and retain their profit margin (Ratnasingam and Ioras 2015). As implied in this study, the Original Equipment Manufacturing (OEM) strategy, which accounts for 75% of the manufacturing capacity, must be reduced and shifted towards Original Design Manufacturing (ODM) and Original Brand Manufacturing (OBM) strategies (Ziaie et al. 2012). This will allow the Malaysian timber products to be exported to other non-traditional markets, in which the products are expected to face less competition and be more profitable.

Dependency on human capital

It is a well-known fact that the timber industry is lowly automated and therefore, the demand for labor is high. Due to the reluctance of the local workforce to seek employment in the timber industry (Ratnasingam et al. 2013), foreign workers have to be employed to fill up the vacancies (National Timber Industry Policy 2009). The increasing dependency on foreign contract workers is evident as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Local and Foreign Workers in the Six Major Timber Sub-Sectors

Careers in the timber sector is often associated with the 3Ds syndrome (dangerous, demeaning, and dirty), which makes it unattractive to the local workforce, who also perceives it to be a low wage economy. These foreign contract workers are regarded as unskilled or semi-skilled workers. Nevertheless, working for several years on the job enables them to enhance their skills. As a matter of fact, Russell (2015) indicated that industrial productivity can be impaired when the short-term tenure of foreign laborers comes to an end, which depletes the industry of its much-needed skills.

With the anticipation of continuous growth of the timber industry in the future, employment of foreign contract workers will be a major challenge. In this context, automation and mechanization is much needed in order to ensure consistent quality products. Although employment of foreign workers appears to be a necessity for the low-cost industry, it does not solve the long term human capital problem. Boosting productivity and value addition through automation and mechanization are possible solutions to ensure a high wage economy. This in turn will create high-skilled employment opportunities in the timber industry, which is attractive to workers, local and foreign, as well as professional graduates in the field of Wood Science and Technology (Kammesheidt et al. 2007).

Technology

Investments in advanced technology contribute towards the growth in industrial productivity (Bush and Sinclair 1989). According to Pang et al. (2015), the technology used in the timber sector, particularly in the value-added industries, was found to be on par with other developed countries, such as Japan, Germany, Italy, and Taiwan. However, the inefficient use of these technologies has hindered the manufacturing of higher value-added products. There are dedicated training centers for the wood-based industry, such as the Wood Industry Skills Development Centre (WISDEC), which trains a sufficient pool of skilled workforce for the industry (National Timber Industry Policy 2009). Bureš and Stropková (2014) highlighted that training is a prerequisite for workers to increase their level of skills. Rahmah et al. (2012) added that training opportunities will eventually lead to the adaption of current industry needs and expertise absorption among the workers in timber industry.

CONCLUSIONS

This study looked at the productivity performance from the years 2010 through 2014 of the six major timber sub-sectors in Malaysia, namely joinery wood products, particleboard and fiberboard, wooden and cane furniture, sawmilling of wood, veneer sheet and plywood, and builders’ joinery and carpentry. The productivity performance is becoming stagnate, which accounts for the relatively low value-addition within the industry.
The labor productivity within the timber sector is stagnant and affected the capital utilization. The high dependence on labor, particularly foreign contract workers has impaired skills retention within the sector, which has severely hindered value-added manufacturing.
To boost productivity and value-addition within the timber sector, remedial measures in the form of industrial development policies, to address shortcomings in the market, technology application, and human capital, must be taken seriously by the various timber industry development agencies.

REFERENCES CITED

Auzina-Emsina, A. (2014). “Labour productivity, economy growth, and global competitiveness in post-crisis period,” Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences 154, 317-321. DOI: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.11.195

Bachtiar, N., Fahmy, R., and Ismail, R. (2015). “The demand for foreign workers in the manufacturing sector in Malaysia,” Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia 49(2), 135-147.

Bureš, V., and Stropková, A. (2014). “Labour productivity and possibilities of its extension by knowledge management aspects,” Procedia – Social Behavioral Sciences 109, 1088-1093.

Bush, R. J., and Sinclair, S. A. (1989). “Labor productivity in sawmills of the Eastern and Southeastern United States,” Wood and Fiber Science 21(2), 123-132.

Choong, P. -Y., and Tham, S.-Y. (1995). “Total factor productivity in the Malaysian manufacturing sector: Some preliminary results,” Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia 29, 9-35.

Department of Statistics (2015). “Timber industry updates,” DOSM Newsletter Vol. 4 No. 2, Putrajaya, Malaysia.

Diewer, W. E., and Nakamura, A. O. (2005). “Concepts and measures of productivity: An introduction,” in: Services Industries and the Knowledge Based Economy, Lipsey and Nakamura (eds.), University of Calgary Press.

Kammesheidt, L., Idrus, R. M., Trockenbrodt, M., and Hans-Schilling, B. (2007). “Linking academic forestry education with employers’ demands: A case study from Malaysia,” International Forestry Review 9(2), 661-669. DOI: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1505/ifor.9.2.661

Menon, P. (2000). “Status of Malaysia’s timber industry,” Asian Timber 20(6), 12-15.

Ministry of International Trade and Industry (2014). “Timber Industry’s Growth under Scrutiny, MITI Industry Update No. 18/2014,” Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

National Timber Industry Policy (2009). “NATIP National Timber Policy 2009-2020,” Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia.

Nayak, S. R., and Patra, S. (2013). “Wage-labour productivity relationship in manufacturing sector of Odisha: An observed analysis,” International Journal of Engineering Science Invention 2(3), 8-11.

Pang, S., H’ng, P., Chai, L., Lee, S., and Paridah, M. D. (2015). “Value added productivity performance of the Peninsular Malaysian wood sawmilling industry,” BioResources 10(4), 7324-7338. DOI: 10.15376/biores.10.4.7324-7338

Rahmah, I., Aliya, R., and Noorasiah, S. (2012). “Globalisation and labour productivity in the Malaysian manufacturing sector,” Review of Economics and Finance 2, 76-86.

Ratnasingam, J. (2015). The Malaysian Furniture Industry: Unraveling its Growth and Challenges to Innovation, Universiti Putra Malaysia Press, Serdang, Selangor.

Ratnasingam, J., and Ioras, F. (2014). “The status and challenges of ISO 9001 quality system among wooden furniture manufacturers in Malaysia and Vietnam,” International Wood Products Journal 5(4), 186-191. DOI: 10.1179/2042645314Y.0000000063

Ratnasingam, J., and Ioras, F. (2015). Productivity Drivers of the ASEAN Wood Products Sector(IFRG Report No. 7/2015), Singapore.

Ratnasingam, J., Lim, T. W., Thanasegaran, G., Ioras, F., Vacalie, C., Coman, L., and Wenming, L. (2013). “Innovations in the forest products industry: The Malaysian experience,” Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj Napoca 41(2), 601-607. DOI: 10.15835/nbha4129339

Rosenkranz, L., Seintsch, B., and Dieter, M. (2015). “Decomposition analysis of changes in value added. A case study of the sawmilling and wood processing industry in Germany,” Forest Policy and Economics 54, 36-50. DOI: 10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.004

Russell, T. (2015). “Malaysian producers continue to rely on foreign labor,” Furniture Today40(5), 58-62.

Salehirad, N., and Sowlati, T. (2006). “Productivity and efficiency assessment of the wood industry: A review with a focus on Canada,” Forest Products Journal 56(11/12), 25-32.

Sauian, M. S. (2002). “Labour productivity: An important business strategy in manufacturing,” Integrated Manufacturing Systems 13(6), 435-438. DOI: 10.1108/09576060210436696

Sauian, M. S., Kamarudin, N., and Mat Rani, R. (2013). “Labor productivity of services sector in Malaysia: Analysis using input-output approach,” Procedia Economics and Finance 7, 35-41. DOI: 10.1016/S2212-5671(13)00215-3

Sriyani, D. (1991). “Factors affecting the productivity of manufacturing sector in Sri Lanka: A spatial analysis,” GeoJournal 23(2), 113-120.

Woon, W. C., and Norini, H. (2002). Trend in Malaysian Forest Policy, Policy Trend Report, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, Malaysia.

Zakaria, N. A., Merous, N. H., and Ahmad, I. (2014). “Assessment of rubberwood value-added in Malaysia’s wooden furniture industry,” International Journal of Economics and Management8(1), 1-9.

Zhang, D., and Rao, V. N. (2006). “Total factor productivity growth in the sawmill and wood preservation industry in the United States and Canada: A comparative study,” Forest Science52(5), 511-521.

Ziaie, M., Mohamed, S., Ratnasingam, J., Ghani, A. N. A., and Salleh, R. (2012). “Unsteadiness of the resource-based competitive advantage in the absence competitive strategy: Lessons from the Malaysian wooden furniture industry,” Journal of Applied Sciences 12(2), 113-124. DOI: 10.3923/jas.2012.113.124

Article submitted: August 2, 2016; Peer review completed: October 22, 2016; Revised version received and accepted: December 28, 2016; Published: January 10, 2017.

DOI: 10.15376/biores.12.1.1430-1446