Abstract
Three natural extracted oils from Citrus reticulata peels, C. aurantifolia leaves, and Linum usitatissimum (linseeds) were used as antifungal agents against the growth of Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium chrysogenum. The following main compounds (determined via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) were found. The essential oil (EO) from C. aurantiifolia leaves contained limonene (22.96%), geranyl acetal (13.53%), and geraniol acetate (13.33%); the n-hexane oil from C. reticulata peels contained methyl-13-cyclopentyltridecanoate (16.74%), and D-limonene (16.06%); and linseed oil contained linoleic acid (27.36%), and oleic acid (19.01%). The inhibition of fungal growth significantly was reached 100% against A. flavus at all tested C. aurantifolia leaf EO concentrations and at a concentration of 2000 µL/mL for linseeds oil. The growth inhibition reached 100% against P. chrysogenum with C. aurantifolia leaf EO concentrations of 125-2000 µL/mL. Citrus reticulata peel EO had 100% growth inhibition of P. chrysogenum at concentrations of 2000 µL/mL and 1000 µL/mL, while linseeds oil had 100% growth inhibition at 2000 µL/mL. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that C. aurantifolia EO yielded the greatest thermal stability and color change protection to cotton pulp, while linseed oil was found to protect wood pulp-based and historical papers.
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Antifungal Potential of Three Natural Oils and Their Effects on the Thermogravimetric and Chromatic Behaviors When Applied to Historical Paper and Various Commercial Paper Sheets
Maisa M. A. Mansour,a Mohamed Z. M. Salem,b Rushdya Rabee Ali Hassan,a Hayssam M. Ali,c,d,* Dunia A. Al Farraj,c and Mohamed S. Elshikh c
Three natural extracted oils from Citrus reticulata peels, C. aurantifolia leaves, and Linum usitatissimum (linseeds) were used as antifungal agents against the growth of Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium chrysogenum. The following main compounds (determined via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) were found. The essential oil (EO) from C. aurantiifolia leaves contained limonene (22.96%), geranyl acetal (13.53%), and geraniol acetate (13.33%); the n-hexane oil from C. reticulata peels contained methyl-13-cyclopentyltridecanoate (16.74%), and D-limonene (16.06%); and linseed oil contained linoleic acid (27.36%), and oleic acid (19.01%). The inhibition of fungal growth significantly was reached 100% against A. flavus at all tested C. aurantifolia leaf EO concentrations and at a concentration of 2000 µL/mL for linseeds oil. The growth inhibition reached 100% against P. chrysogenum with C. aurantifolia leaf EO concentrations of 125-2000 µL/mL. Citrus reticulata peel EO had 100% growth inhibition of P. chrysogenum at concentrations of 2000 µL/mL and 1000 µL/mL, while linseeds oil had 100% growth inhibition at 2000 µL/mL. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that C. aurantifolia EO yielded the greatest thermal stability and color change protection to cotton pulp, while linseed oil was found to protect wood pulp-based and historical papers.
Keywords: Antifungal potential; Chromatic behaviors; Natural oils; Paper; pH, TGA; FTIR
Contact information: a: Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University, Giza 12613 Egypt; b: Forestry and Wood Technology Department, Faculty of Agriculture (EL-Shatby), Alexandria University, Alexandria 21545 Egypt; c: Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia; d: Timber Trees Research Department, Sabahia Horticulture Research Station, Horticulture Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Alexandria 21526 Egypt; *Corresponding author: hayhassan@ksu.edu.sa
INTRODUCTION
Fungi are the main deterioration agents for wood, wood products, paper, historical manuscripts, leathers, and other heritage artifacts. They degrade the polysaccharide components and cause cell wall degradation or discoloration of organic materials (da Silva et al. 2006; Zyani et al. 2009; Sequeira et al. 2014; Hassan and Mansour 2018; Abo Elgat et al. 2020a; Hassan et al. 2020a; Mansour et al. 2020a; Mansour et al. 2020b; Salem et al. 2020a). Most of these fungi, including Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium chrysogenum, cause damage to historical papers in practice (Ljaljević-Grbić et al. 2013; Pinheiro et al. 2019).
Medicinal/aromatic plants and edible seeds are good sources for natural oils and extracts with potential biological activities against different groups of pathogens, e.g., antibacterial (Abbassy et al. 2020; Ashmawy et al. 2020a, b), antifungal (El-Hefny et al. 2019; Salem et al. 2019a,b; Behiry et al. 2020; Mansour et al. 2020a; Mohamed et al. 2020a, b; Salem et al. 2020b), and insecticidal (Hussein et al. 2017; Hamada et al. 2018; El-Sabrout et al. 2019; Hamad et al. 2019; Salem et al. 2020b), as well as providing antioxidant properties (Salem et al. 2016a; Elansary et al. 2017; El-Hefny et al. 2018; Al-Huqail et al. 2019; Okla et al. 2019a). In the present work, extracted oils from Citrus aurantifolia, C. reticulata, and Linum usitatissimum were used.
The peel oils of many species of Citrus showed the presence of limonene as the primary compound (Moufida and Marzouk 2003; Golmohammadi et al. 2018; Okla et al. 2019b; Abo Elgat et al. 2020b), which provides strong antifungal activity against A. flavus (Velázquez-Nuñez et al. 2013). The essential oil from C. aurantifolia showed strong inhibitory effects towards Aspergillus parasiticus and aflatoxins production (Rammanee and Hongpattarakere 2011). The primary compound in C. aurantifolia leaves essential oil, D-limonene, showed promising antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli strains with excellent in vitro antioxidant activity (Al-Aamri et al. 2018). Essential oils and extracts from C. aurantifolia are known to exhibit important biological activities against several pathogens, e.g., Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Aspergillus niger, and Candida albicans, such as antiaflatoxigenic and anticancer properties (Aibinu et al. 2007; Razzaghi-Abyaneh et al. 2009; Pathan et al. 2012; Narang and Jiraungkoorskul 2016). Limonene (46.7%), as well as other compounds such as geranial, neral, and geranyl, were identified in the oil extracted from Citrus reticulata Blanco, which all show promising antifungal activity (Chutia et al. 2009). The peel oil from C. reticulata proved to be more toxic to Sitophylus zeamais adults than C. aurantiifolia oil (Fouad and da Camara 2017).
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L., Linaceae family) is a good source of α-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid), as well as phenolic compounds, peptides, cyanogenic glycosides, alkaloids, polysaccharides, proteins, and fixed oil, which promises several health benefits (Hall et al. 2006; Krajčová et al. 2009; Bayrak et al. 2010; Goyal et al. 2014; Shim et al. 2014; Chauhan et al. 2015). The unsaturated fatty acids and lignans are the two primary groups of metabolites in flaxseed that exhibit antimicrobial activities (Paiva et al. 2010; Fadzir et al. 2018). The extracts derived from flaxseeds have been suggested to be effective in prohibiting the growth of Escherichia coli, Salmonella paratyphii, Lactobacillus, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Narender et al. 2016). Flaxseed oil was applied as a constrictive bioantifungal and exhibited average insecticidal properties (Kaithwas and Majumdar 2013). The n-hexane extract showed promising antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, S. epidermis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and K. pneumoniae (Al-Mathkhury et al. 2016). The extracted oligosaccharides from flaxseed were found to be able to control the growth of Alternia alternata and Alternia solani (Guilloux et al. 2009).
This study was carried out in order to investigate in vitro the antifungal potency of extracted oils from Citrus aurantifolia leaves, Citrus reticulata peels, and Linum usitatissimum seeds against two fungal strains, Aspergillus flavus (acc#MH355958) and Penicillium chrysogenum (acc#MH352451). In this context, this is the first time these extracts have been evaluated for their effects on the thermogravimetric and chromatic properties of historical papers in comparison to paper made from the pulp of softwood and cotton.
EXPERIMENTAL
Preparation of the Natural Oils
The oil from Citrus aurantifolia leaves was extracted via the hydrodistillation method, where approximately 150 g of small pieces of leaves were put in 2 L flask containing 1500 mL of distilled water then connected to a Clevenger unit and heated for 3 h under refluxing (Abdelsalam et al. 2019). The obtained essential oil was kept dry in an Eppendorf tube.
Peels from C. reticulata were collected as the byproduct from fruits and linseeds (Linum usitatissimum L.) were purchased from an herbarium store located in Alexandria City, Egypt. Approximately 250 g of ripened linseeds and C. reticulata peels, in form of small pieces, were soaked (separately) in 200 mL of n-hexane solvent for 24 h. After the extraction process, the materials were filtered through a cotton plug using filter paper (Whatman No. 1), to removal any solid residues and to obtain the dissolved oils in n-hexane solvent (Ashmawy et al. 2020b). The solvent was evaporated, and the oils were obtained and preserved at 4 °C in a refrigerator until needed.
Chemical Analysis of the Oils
The oil extracts collected from ripened flax seeds and Citrus reticulata peels via n-hexane solvent extraction were analyzed for their chemical constituents with a Trace GC Ultra-ISQ mass spectrometer (Thermo Scientific, Austin, TX) with a direct capillary column TG–5MS (30 m × 0.5 mm × 0.25 µm film thickness) apparatus at the Atomic and Molecular Physics Unit, Experimental Nuclear Physics Department, Nuclear Research Centre, Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (Inshas, Cairo, Egypt). The column oven temperatures and the chemical separation and identification conditions can be found in the study by Salem et al. (2019a). The conditions used to separate and identify the chemical compounds in the essential oil from the Citrus aurantifolia leaves can be found in the study by Okla et al. (2019b). Xcalibur 3.0 data system in the GC-MS with its values of threshold were used to confirm that all the mass spectra of the identified compounds were attached to the library. Furthermore, the measurement indices of Standard Index (SI) and Reverse Standard Index (RSI) with values ≥ 650 were used to confirm the identified compounds (Abdelsalam et al. 2019; Salem et al. 2019a,b; Ashmawy et al. 2020a,b; Mohamed et al. 2020a,b; Behiry et al. 2020).
Antifungal Activity of the Oils
The three oils were prepared at concentrations of 2000, 1000, 500, 250, 125, and 62 μL/mL by dissolving them 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) followed by 0.5 mL of tween 80, which was used to emulsify the carrier oils in the solvent (Salem et al. 2016b, 2019b). Potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium was used to grow the two tested fungi, Aspergillus flavus (acc#MH355958) and Penicillium chrysogenum (acc#MH352451), at 26 °C at a relative humidity of 65±5%. The PDA medium was sterilized, and then the concentrated oils were added to the PDA medium and poured into sterilized Petri dishes. For each fungus type, fungal mycelial (7-day-old culture) discs, with a diameter of 0.5 cm, were put directly on the surface of the treated medium at the center of the Petri dishes. All the inoculated plates were incubated at 26 °C, and after the control treatment had finished growing (inoculated plates did not contain plant oils), the fungal diameter growth was measured in triplicate (Salem et al. 2017). The percentage of growth inhibition (GI) was calculated according to Eq. 1,
GI% = [(G1 – G2)/G1] × 100 (1)
where the GI is the mycelial growth inhibition (%), and G1 and G2 are the average diameters (mm) of the fungal colonies of the control (10% DMSO) and treatment, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the studied oils were measured as they were prepared at concentrations of 2 µL/mL to 62 µL/mL, using the broth dilution method according to CLSI (2008).
TGA Measurements
Source of papers
Paper samples with approximate dimensions of 7 cm × 15 cm with a 0.05 mm thickness were selected for the study and were not aged any further. The paper samples used were purified cotton linter cellulose (40 g/m²), paper sheets made from mechanical softwood pulp (40 g/m²) with a SR° of 40 in a Jokro (Rakta paper mill- Alexandria) (Hassan and Mohamed 2017), and a historical paper sample from the manuscript of “Tafsir Al Khazen”, which is a book completely made of paper. The historical paper sample was received by the venerable Prince Louaa Ayoub, formerly Dafter Dar of Egypt, Mohamed Abu El Dahab in 1779 AD. The paper sheets were prepared according to the previous works (Hassan 2016; Hassan and Mohamed 2017; Hassan and Mansour 2018). All the paper samples were treated with the highest MICs values reported from the antifungal activity test. To study the effect of oil on paper, the samples were placed in Petri dishes contains cotton saturated with these oils, without contact between the oil and the paper, while the process was carried out through the sublimation of the oil (Massoud et al. 2012). Therefore, there is not impregnation with the oils. Furthermore, text-free samples were used.
TGA methodology
Thermogravimetric analysis was carried out with a Shimadzu TGA-50 device (Kyoto, Japan) at a temperature range of 22 °C to 760 °C in a static nitrogen atmosphere with a heating rate of 10 °C/min. The temperature ranges of the specimens in this study were evaluated via differential mass loss curves.
Measuring the Color Change
The color change parameters L, a, and b were measured with a HunterLab Labscan 600 spectrocolorimeter (version 3.0; Hunter Associates Laboratory Inc., Reston, VA), where L refers to the black-to-white color, a refers to the green-to-red color, and b refers to the blue-to-yellow color. The total color change of all oil treated paper types was expressed as ΔE, according to Eq, 2,
(2)
where (∆L)², (∆a)², and (∆b)² are the differences between the values of the color indices before and after oil treatment (Ali et al. 2018; Salem et al. 2020c; Salim et al. 2020).
Statistical Analysis
The fungi inhibition percentages were statistically analyzed using ANOVA in a completely randomized design with two factors (oil source and oil concentration) using Statistical Analysis System software (version 8.2, SAS, Cary, NC), and compared with the values of the control. The means were compared with a least significant difference (LSD) test at a significance level of a p-value less than 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chemical Composition and the Antifungal Activity of the Oils
The chemical compounds of the essential oil (EO) from Citrus aurantiifolia leaves are shown in Table 1. The primary compounds in the EO were limonene (22.96%), geranyl acetal (13.53%), geraniol acetate (13.33%), γ-dodecalactone (7.51%), caryophyllene oxide (7.4%), β-caryophyllene (7.36%), spathulenol (4.95%), neryl acetal (4.38%), citronellal (3.13%), β-citral (2.52%), and (E)-citral (2.10%).
Table 1. Phytochemicals of the Essential Oil from Citrus aurantiifolia (leaves) Analysed via GC-MS
Table 2 shows the chemical composition of the n-hexane oil (fixed oil) from Citrus reticulata peels as analyzed via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The primary compounds were methyl-13-cyclopentyltridecanoate (16.74%), D-limonene (16.06%), diethyl phthalate (13.37%), oleic acid (8.02%), methyl (16E)-16-octadecenoate (5.68%), 14-pentadecynoic acid methyl ester (4.39%), 1,3-diolein (4.33%), and cis-7-hexadecenoic acid methyl ester (4.22%). Table 3 presents the chemical constituents of linseed fixed oil; the primary compounds were linoleic acid (27.36%), oleic acid (19.01%), palmitic acid (18.28%), and methyl hexadecadienoate (16.26%).
Table 2. Phytochemicals of the Fixed Oil from Citrus reticulata Peels Extracted Using n-Hexane
Table 3. Phytochemicals of the Fixed Oil from Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) Analysed via GC-MS
As indicated in Table 4, the oils from Linum usitatissimum, Citrus reticulata, and C. aurantifolia showed different antifungal activity levels against the studied fungi (Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium chrysogenum). Generally, the inhibitory effect of the oils increased in proportion with an increase in concentration, and maximum inhibition was reached at the final concentration of 2000 µL/mL. Table 4 presents the growth inhibition (GI) percentage of the A. flavus and P. chrysogenum fungal mycelial, and how the GI values were affected by the three oils. At all the studied concentrations, the GI% significantly reached 100% as the essential oil from C. aurantifolia leaves was tested as antifungal agent against the growth of A. flavus, while it reached 100% as seed oil from L. usitatissimum was tested at the concentration of 2000 µL/mL in comparison with the control (p-value less than 0.05 via ANOVA). While C. reticulata peel EO yielded GI% values of 57.41% in terms of A. flavus growth, C. aurantifolia oil yielded the highest GI% values (100%) with significant antifungal activity (p-value less than 0.05) against P. chrysogenum at concentrations of 125 µL/mL, 250 µL/mL, 500 µL/mL, 1000 µL/mL, and 2000 µL/mL and reached a GI value of 81.48% at 62 µL/mL, when compared to the control treatment. Citrus reticulata peel oil yielded significant (p-value less than 0.05) GI values, with 100% of the fungal growth inhibited at the concentrations of 2000 µL/mL and 1000 µL/mL against P. chrysogenum. In addition, L. usitatissimum seed oil applied at 2000 µL/mL yielded a GI value of 100%, when compared to the control treatment.
Table 4. Antifungal Activity of the Tested Oils Against Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium chrysogenum
Table 5 shows the MIC results of the studied oils, where the lowest MIC values were less than 2 µL/mL. This level of C. aurantifolia leaf essential oil was applied to inhibit the growth of A. flavus and P. chrysogenum, respectively. Therefore, the highest MIC values were 6 µL/mL, 2 µL/mL, and 32 µL/mL for C. reticulata (peels), C. aurantifolia (leaves), and Linum usitatissimum (seed), respectively. These concentrations were used to treat the paper made with mechanical softwood pulp, cotton paper, and historical paper.
Table 5. Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) of the Oil Treatments
In a study by Razzaghi-Abyaneh (2018), D-limonene was found to make up 22.96% of the compounds in the essential oil of C. aurantifolia leaves, but it reached 85.5% in the plants grown in Iran. In a study by Al-Aamri et al. (2018), D-limonene (63.35%) formed the major constituent of C. aurantifolia essential oil; however, other compounds, including 3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadien-1-ol, geraniol, E-citral, Z-citral, and β-ocimene (7.07%, 6.23%, 4.35%, 3.29%, and 2.25%, respectively), were found. In a study by Ibrahim et al. (2019), D-limonene (57.84%) was the primary compound in C. aurantifolia leaf essential oil, with notable compounds, including neral, linalool, sulcatone, and isogeraniol (7.81%, 4.75%, 3.48%, and 3.48%, respectively), were identified. A study by Lemes et al. (2018) found limonene, linalool, citronellal, and citronellol as the main constituents (77.5%, 20.1%, 14.5%, and 14.2%, respectively), in the essential oils from C. aurantifolia leaves and fruit peels, which showed promising activity against Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus casei.
Samples of C. aurantifolia from Italy contained limonene, β-myrcene, citral, γ-terpinene, β-pinene, and β-bisabolene as the primary compounds (Tundis et al. 2012; Spadaro et al. 2012). In addition, limonene and β-pinene were the major components in the essential oil extracted from C. aurantifolia collected in South Korea (Hong et al. 2017). Citrus aurantifolia leaf essential oil showed an inhibition value against A. parasiticus (47.8%) and therefore was considered to possess the ability to suppress this fungus (Rammanee and Hongpattarakere 2011). According to a study by Abo Elgat et al. (2020b), Citrus sinensis peel essential oil showed potential antifungal activity against A. flavus with a GI of 86.66% when applied at a concentration of 50 µL/mL. Dongmo et al. (2009) observed that C. aurantifolia essential oil had a fungicidal inhibiting action on the radial growth of Phaeoramularia angolensis.
Limonene (46.7%), followed by geranial, neral, geranyl acetate, geraniol, β-caryophyllene, nerol, neryl acetate (19%, 14.5%, 3.9%, 3.5%, 2.3%, 2.6%, and 1.1%, respectively) were found in the oil extracted from C. reticulata Blanco grown in India (Chutia et al. 2009), which possessed good antifungal activity against plant pathogenic fungi Alternaria alternata, Rhizoctonia solani, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium oxysporum, and Helminthosporium oryzae. Citrus reticulata essential oil at a concentration of 0.94% showed a 100% reduction of the growth of A. flavus and P. chrysogenum (Viuda-Martos et al. 2008).
The antifungal activity of the extracted oils is associated with the phytochemical components, e.g., monoterpenes (Matasyoh et al. 2007), which are able to diffuse into cell membrane structures and damage them. Sokovic and Griensven (2006) observed that limonene and α-pinene possessed antifungal activity (a MIC of 4.0 μL/mL to 9.0 μL/mL) against Verticillium fungicola and Trichoderma harzianum, which are found at different amount in different plant essential oils (limonene and α-pinene). The essential oils and their related substances made the cell membrane of the fungus permeable, causing leakage (Piper et al. 2001).
Fatty acids, i.e., linoleic, oleic, and palmitic, are the primary identified compounds in linseed essential oil. It was reported by Coşkuner and Karababa (2007) that the primary oil constituents were linoleic acid, oleic acid, and α-linolenic acid, with values ranging from 8% to 29%, 12% to 30%, and 35% to 67%, respectively. In addition, α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, and stearic acid were found in the ranges of 39.9% to 60.42%, 12.25% to 17.44%, 4.9% to 8%, 13.44% to 19.39%, and 2.24% to 4.59%, respectively, in a study by Goyal et al. (2014); additional studies found these compounds comprised 53%, 17%, 5%, 19%, and 3% of the primary compounds, respectively (Simopoulos 2002; Bernacchia et al. 2014). Linseed oil from a Romanian plant contained high levels of linolenic acid (53.21%) followed by oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid (18.51%, 17.25%, 6.58%, and 4.43%, respectively) (Popa et al. 2012). Fatty acids α-linolenic (51.37%), oleic (20.59%), linoleic (15.8%), palmitic (5.86%), and stearic (5.57%) were reported as the primary compounds in the linseed oil analyzed in a study by Danish and Nizami (2019).
For linseed oil, the biological activity action of fatty acids is attributed to its unsaturated long-chain fatty acids, i.e., linoleic, linolenic, and oleic (Xu et al. 2008; Mueller et al. 2010; Chandrasekaran et al. 2011), while its saturated long-chain fatty acids, i.e., stearic and palmitic, are less active (Seidel and Taylor 2004). The potential antifungal activity of linseed oil against Aspergillus ochraceus and A. flavus could be due to its rich α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid content (Abdelillah et al. 2013). Petroleum ether extract showed good antifungal activity against Candida albicans (Guilloux et al. 2009; Kaithwas et al. 2011), Flaxseed flour showed promising fungistatic activity against Fusarium graminearum, A. flavus, and Penicillium chrysogenum (Xu et al. 2008), while defatted flaxseed powder exhibited bioactivity against A. flavus and A. niger (Barbary et al. 2010). Linseed powder at a 6% concentration completely inhibited the development of A. flavus (Xu et al. 2008).
Thermogravimetric Properties of the Treated Paper Samples
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is a simple and accurate method for studying the decomposition pattern and thermal stability of paper after treatment. Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the primary thermo-grams and derivato-grams for the reference paper sources, softwood pulp, cotton, and historical paper, respectively, as well as the samples treated with oil.
The references paper samples (wood-based, cotton, and historical paper) had an initial weight loss of 3.6%, 3.3%, and 2.86%, respectively, at approximately 105 °C, which is primarily due to the evaporation of any absorbed moisture (Madera‐Santana et al. 2002; Hassan 2020). The primary decomposition proceeds in one step (Nasr and Ismail 2010) for each type of paper, i.e., in the cotton sample the weight loss of 3.3% occurs at a decomposition temperature (Td) of 107 °C and the weight loss of 3.6% for the wood-based sample occurred at a Td of 105.6 °C. Furthermore, the authors were able to detect similar behavior between the untreated samples (Table 6).
The data in Table 6 show the difference in the results of the modern paper samples and the historical sample; the historical sample started the initial weight loss at high temperatures than the modern samples (the Td of the historical sample was approximately 201 °C). Thermal gravimetric analysis allowed a conclusion to be drawn that the thermo oxidation destruction of historical paper, before and after treatment, was a multistage process, which involved at least three stages.
The maximum rate of the first stage of thermal oxidation can be determined by the weight loss rate, which is considered a major determinate of the degree of paper destruction. The data from Table 6 shows that the historical paper samples with the highest degree of destruction exhibited the highest rate of destruction during the first stage. For the historical paper samples, the lowest mass loss that occurs during stage II of the paper destruction process is related to the partial splitting of cellulose macromolecules, and therefore, increases the heterogeneousness of its structures (Kamel et al. 2004).
To examine the mass loss brought about by high temperatures, dM/dT curves (calculated by deriving weight loss vs. temperature data) are given for references and treated paper with oils, as shown in Figs. 1 through 3. Degradation of untreated paper started at a temperature lower than 105 ºC and degraded with much higher speed than treated samples. Initial degradation temperature of treated samples were much lower than references ones, and also the speed was much slower. In the heat versus weight loss curve, the mass loss peaks of untreated and treated took place at different temperatures. For wood-based paper, the mass loss peak occurred at a much lower temperature than cotton samples. Treating paper by oils made paper more thermally stable and increased the ash content, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Although the improvement was (as it was not detected very clearly), a small improvement in thermal stability was considered important. It should be noted that the samples treated with Linum usitatissimum gave the highest thermal stability, especially with cotton samples. In accordance with the literature (Le Moigne 2008; Youssef et al. 2012), there was no degradation before 50 °C. Above this temperature, thermal stability gradually decreased, and decomposition of the fibers occurred in treated paper with two different steps: one peak below 40 °C, and another one at 105 °C. The first peak was assigned to the decomposition of oils, and it shifted to higher temperature than in untreated samples. The second inflection with the sharp peak was at the same Td of original paper. The data show the effect of treatment on total initial weight loss; it is obvious that the treatment decreased total initial weight loss, especially for the samples treated with C. reticulata oil. Treated cotton with Linum usitatissimum and wood-based paper treated with Citrus reticulata had the highest and lowest stability, respectively.
However, there was a change of the destruction mechanism from hydrolytic to hemolytic, which might be due to stearic acid (in the chemical structure of the oils), which it is believed to enhance the hydrophobicity of the negative active material. It also reduces the extension of oxidation in the open atmosphere (Wang et al. 2007). Moreover, the loss of free water in paper results in a loss of flexibility, while the loss of bound water results in its deterioration, due to changes that occur in its chemical structure and physical properties (Hassan 2015).
Paper samples treated with linseed oil showed the highest mass loss values, but it should be taken into consideration that the end temperature was dramatically increased in comparison to the standard sample, which confirms the impact of linseed oil on the thermal characteristics of treated paper at high temperatures. The authors were able to identify two mechanisms of oxidation in linseed oil: (i) the poor oxidative stability of linseed oil at low temperatures can attributed to a high α-linolenic acid content (Rudnik et al. 2001); and (ii) the good oxidative stability of linseed oil at high temperatures can increase the rate of protection from oxidation at high temperatures, which was consistent with various studies. Khattab et al. (1999) found that as the linseed oil concentration in the cotton paper sample increases, the apparent activation energies of pyrolysis and oxidation decrease, due to the hypothesized formation of free radicals via the oxidation of linseed oil, which then catalyze the pyrolysis reactions of cotton. Linseed oil oxidation, which incorporates cross-linking reactions, involves oxygen consumption, and thus induces increased sample mass. Therefore, the mass reading of a TGA instrument corresponds to a combined effect of mass gaining reactions, i.e., oxygen consumption, and mass losing reactions, i.e., emission of carbon oxides and water. For this reason, gravimetric techniques alone are insufficient to investigate the spontaneous ignition of linseed oil impregnated into cellulose materials.
The results show the effectiveness of the oils at improving the thermal stability properties of the treated paper at different temperatures, especially C. aurantifolia oil, which improved the thermal properties of both cotton paper and wood-based paper dramatically, as the end temperature of the primary decomposition temperature was higher than the decomposition temperature of the standard sample. However, it must be noted that the improvement mechanism was linked to a closed link with the type of paper pulp, i.e., C. aurantifolia oil yielded the best results with cotton pulp, while L. usitatissimum oil yielded promising results with softwood mechanical pulp-based and historical papers.
Fig. 1. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) for the weight change (mg/sec.) for the cotton paper samples before and after treatment with the three oils (A) Citrus reticulata; (B) Citrus aurantifolia; (C) Linum usitatissimum
Fig. 2. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) for the weight change (mg/sec.) for the wood-based paper samples before and after treatment with the three oils A) Citrus reticulata; (B) Citrus aurantifolia; (C) Linum usitatissimum
Fig. 3. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) for the weight change (mg/sec.) for the historical paper samples before and after treatment with the three oils. A) Citrus reticulata; (B) Citrus aurantifolia; (C) Linum usitatissimum
Table 6. Parameters of the Thermo-Oxidation Destruction for Paper Samples Before and After Oil Treatment
Total Color Differences (ΔE)
The results of the total color change values (ΔE) for the paper samples before and after treatment with the tested three oils are shown in Table 7. The results confirmed that after the oil treatments, the ΔE values of the treated wood-based paper samples decreased significantly; the ΔE of the wood-based paper sample treated with L. usitatissimum oil was 2.11, while the ΔE was even higher when treated with C. aurantifolia oil (ΔE 9.33) and C. reticulata (6.65 ΔE).
Table 7. Total Color Differences of Paper Samples Before and After Treatment with Oils
For treated the cotton paper samples, significant color change was found in the samples treated with C. aurantifolia and L. usitatissimum oils, with ΔE values of 6.11 and 6.82, respectively, however the ΔE decreased to 2.14 when treated with C. aurantifolia oil. The treated historical paper samples yielded ΔE values of 7.57, 6.34, and 2.15 when the paper was treated with the oils from C. aurantifolia, C. aurantifolia and L. usitatissimum, respectively. These results confirmed that the oils from L. usitatissimum, C. aurantifolia and L. usitatissimum played a vital role in reducing the color change values in wood-based paper, cotton paper, and historical paper, respectively. Table 6 shows that L. usitatissimum oil provided the best color change protection, as yielded the lowest ΔE values for the treated samples, which were classified as not noticeable to the naked eye, since their value was less than 5 (Hassan 2019, 2020b).
CONCLUSIONS
- The effect of using three natural oils as antifungal agents, as well as their effects on the thermogravimetric, chromatic behaviors of a historical paper sample, and paper sheets made from softwood mechanical pulp and cotton were studied. The results indicated that the three oils assayed possessed antifungal properties against Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium chrysogenum, ranked in the following order: C. aurantifolia was greater than C. reticulata, which was greater than L. usitatissimum. These three essential oils could be used to control fungal infestations on various types of paper.
- The thermogravimetric and chromatic alternations analyses demonstrated a positive effect of C. aurantifolia EO and color change protection to cotton pulp, while linseeds oil showed positive effects with wood pulp-based and historical papers.
- The positive effect of the oils on the thermal properties of the papers provided a significant increase in the initial decomposition temperatures after treatment, but this improvement was linked to the type of paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at the King Saud University for funding this work through research group No. RG 1435-011.
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Article submitted: Sept. 18, 2020; Peer review completed: Nov. 15, 2020; Revised version received and accepted: November 22, 2020; Published: November 24, 2020.
DOI: 10.15376/biores.16.1.492-514