Volume 6 Issue 4

In a biorefinery context it is an advantage to fractionate and extract different wood components in a relatively pure form. However, one major obstacle for efficient extraction of wood polymers (lignin, polysaccharides etc.) is the covalent lignin-polysaccharide networks present in lignified cell walls. Enzymatic catalysis might be a useful tool for a controlled degradation of these networks, thereby enhancing the extraction of high molecular weight polymers. In this work, a methanol-alkali mixture was used to extract two different wood samples treated with endoxylanase and gammanase, respectively. Wood chips were pretreated with alkali prior to enzymatic treatment to enhance the cell-wall accessibility to enzymes. Extractions were also carried out on non-enzyme-treated samples to evaluate the enzymatic effects. Results showed that the enzymatic treatment increased the extraction yield, with gammanase as the more efficient of the two enzymes. Furthermore, polymers extracted from xylanase-treated wood had a higher degree of polymerization than the reference.

In this study the effect of processing parameters on different types of wood raw material in extrusion was examined. The study consisted of two parts: the first part was to break and separate individual fibers from wood chips during the extrusion process; in the second part the effect of chemical pre-treatment and screw elements on wood raw material was evaluated. Statistical analysis was performed to evaluate the most important factors affecting wood particle size in extrusion. The statistical analysis showed that the screw speed is the main factor affecting wood fiber length in twin-screw extrusion of wood chips. This study showed that a twin-screw extruder can be used to separate individual fibers from wood chips, and the separated fibers have higher aspect ratios than the wood flour particles typically used in wood-polymer composites. When more fibrous and chemically softened wood raw material was used, fibers with even higher aspect ratios were obtained.

Iran is facing a severe lack of fibrous raw materials for paper production. Kenaf (Hibiscus cannubinus L.) is a superior complement to wood as a source of fiber. Kenaf bast fibers are excellent for making pulp and paper of various grades due to the presence of high alpha cellulose (56.43), holocellulose (77.71), and ultimate fiber length (2.77 mm). Fiber length is an important factor in the development of tear and tensile properties. The aim of this work is to study the effect of charge alkali (20 and 25% oven dried, as NaOH) and cooking time (30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 min) of kenaf bast fiber on soda and soda-anthraquinone (AQ) pulp yield, kappa number, rejects, and strength properties of their handsheets. Results indicated that alkali charge and cooking time had significant influence on kappa number, yield, and rejects of pulps, whereas PFI revolution had only a minimal effect, especially at higher cooking times. The soda method was modified by adding 0.2% anthraquinone, and the resultant pulps displayed an increase in pulp yield and reduction in both kappa number (by 6 to 9 units) and screening rejects. The strength properties obtained with the two cooking processes used were compared, and those provided by soda-AQ process were found to be best. Regarding handsheet properties, a significant improvement in tensile index could be obtained by the soda-AQ process, compared to the soda process.

Cellulose/chitosan homogeneous solutions were prepared in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([EMIM]Ac) ionic liquid. Steady and oscillatory dynamic rheological properties were studied with a Haake Mars-ΙΙΙ rotational rheometer. Rheological results show that cellulose/chitosan [EMIM]Ac solutions are a pseudoplastic liquid, and the viscosity of the solution decreases with increasing of chitosan content. The zero shear rate viscous activation energy of solution is about 52.10 to 62.50KJ/mol, calculated from the Cross and Arrhenius equation. The structural viscosity index of the solution is similar to that of cellulose/N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide solution, which indicates a potential spinnability. The dynamic rheological responses reveal that the Cox-Merz rule holds well with the solutions, and the crossover point of loss modulus and storage modulus shifts to a higher frequency range with increasing temperature.

A study was conducted to quantify tar formation in a stratified downdraft gasifier using wood pellets. The effect of biomass flow rate on tar concentration was also analyzed, and more than thirty compounds in tar were quantified. Among the different compounds in tar, tertiary condensed products such as toluene, o/p-xylene, naphthalene, phenol, styrene, and indene were observed in significant amounts. Tar concentration in the syngas was found to be in the range of 340 to 680 mg/Nm3. These concentrations were found to be much higher when compared to a similar gasifier using woodchips.

The effect on morphological, spectroscopic, and thermal properties of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers (OPEFB fibers) and oil palm frond fibers (OPF fibers) following treatment and modification with sodium hydroxide and succinic anhydride, respectively, were investigated. The evidence of treatment was observed by weight gain and FT-IR. The effect of the treatment upon the fiber surfaces was examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which indicated that succinic anhydride treatment led to smoother surfaces as compared to the sodium hydroxide. The thermal degradation was carried out by thermal gravimetric analysis, which exhibited a different degree of mass loss due to different treatments.

A composite of themoplastic polyurethane (TPU) reinforced with short kenaf (Hibiscus Cannabinus L.) fiber (KF) was prepared by a melt-mixing method. Mixing was followed by compression molding to produce sheets for specimen cutting. Five samples were cut from the composite sheet. A mean value was taken for each sample according to ASTM standards. The aims of this study were to optimize the processing parameters and fiber size of TPU/KF composite. The method used to develop this composite consisted of two main steps. First, the influence of processing parameters such as temperature, time, and speed on tensile properties was studied. Second, effects of different fiber size on tensile properties, flexural properties, and impact strength were tested. The optimum blending parameters were 190°C, 11 min, and 40 rpm for temperature, time and speed, respectively. TPU/KF composites with different fiber sizes were prepared, namely, <125, 125-300, and 300-425 µm. Tensile and flexural strength and modulus were best for fiber size range between 125 and 300 µm. Impact strength showed a slight increasing trend with an increase in fiber size.

Solution behaviors and adsorption characteristics of sodium lignosulfonate (NaLS) were studied under different pH conditions. The changes of Mw and particle size of NaSL with solution pH were detected by laser light scattering (LLS). Film thickness was determined with a spectroscopic ellipsometer, and surface roughness was measured by atomic force microscopy (AFMaSL was changed from compact to loose. When the NaSL with loose structure and low degree of aggregation was adsorbed on a solid substrate, the adsorption thickness and the surface roughness decreased correspondingly.

The objective of this research was to evaluate the influence of steam-heat treatment on the decay resistance of Chinese white poplar and Chinese fir wood against the wood-rotting fungi Gloeophyllum trabeum (Pers.:Fr.) Murrill. The Chinese white poplar and Chinese fir specimens were obtained from Shandong and Hunan provinces, respectively. They were steam-heat-treated at 170, 185, 200, 215, or 230 oC with time duration of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 hrs in an air-tight chamber that comprised less than 2 per cent oxygen. According to the standard GB/T 13942.1-92, the decay resistance experiments were completed with the wood-rotting fungi G. trabeum on an agar block test with 12-week incubation. The results of steam-heat treatment indicated that, compared to a weight loss of 56% for untreated samples, a weight loss of 45% decreased to just 2% for Chinese white poplar with an increase in temperature from 170 to 230℃. No weight loss was observed in the steam-heat-treated China-fir heartwood, sapwood, and untreated sapwood specimens, while only a weight loss of 4.739% in untreated China-fir heartwood specimens was found.

Fractionation using concentrated phosphoric acid is a cost-effective pretreatment approach due to production of highly reactive amorphous cellulose under modest reaction conditions. Chinese white poplar biomass was used as feedstock. The effects of pretreating temperature and liquid/solid ratio of H3PO4/poplar (v/w, ml/g) on poplar fractionation, enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency (EHE), and supramolecular structural change were investigated. Only 31% (w/w, g/g) cellulose was retained in the solid phase at the higher liquid/solid ratio of 10:1 for 60 min, while 38 % cellulose was retained at 8:1. Temperature played an important role in lignin removal, xylan hydrolysis, and enzymatic hydrolysis, which may eventually influence cellulose conversion. More than 40% lignin could be removed after 60 min pretreatment at above 50 oC. A majority of the xylan hydrolysis could be detected in mixed rinsing liquid after 80 min pretreatment at 50 oC and liquid/solid ratio of 10:1. Up to 96.37% EHE could be obtained after 24 h enzymatic hydrolysis at 50 oC. The optimal pretreatment condition was 50 oC, liquid/solid ratio 8:1 (v/w), and 60 min. After pretreatment the CrI index decreased from 39.9 % to 27.7 %, suggesting a decrease of crystalline area percentage. Pyrolysis-GC-MS results of precipitated lignin indicated that nearly 48% of the lignin was phenolic, such that it can be used as a natural antioxidative material.