Volume 8 Issue 2

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized within cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) as a new stabilizer by a precipitation method for antimicrobial applications. For fabrication of ZnO/CNC nanocomposites, solutions with different molar ratios of Zn to CNC were prepared in ethanol as the solvent. ZnO/CNC was separated from the suspension and then dried at 120 °C for 1 hour. The nanocomposites were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM), and thermogravimetric (TG) analyses. According to the XRD and TEM results, the ZnO nanoparticles with a hexagonal wurtzite structure were easily prepared and dispersed in the CNC with an average size of less than 20 nm. The average size of the ZnO nanoparticles increased with increasing molar ratio of ZnO to CNC. The best ratio of Zn:CNC was chosen based on the small size of the ZnO nanoparticles that yielded better antimicrobial and thermal properties. The UV-vis absorption spectra of the ZnO/CNC nanocomposites showed absorption peaks in the UV region that were ascribed to the band gap of the ZnO nanoparticles. The antibacterial effects of ZnO/CNC were stronger compared to ZnO nanoparticles.

The present study investigated the effect of thermal ageing of several wood varnishes on film characteristics. For this purpose, alkyd, two-part polyurethane (urethane-alkyd), and water-borne (self-cross-linked polyurethane) varnishes were applied on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Eastern beech (Fagus orientalis L.), and sessile oak (Quercus petraea L.). The test samples had 8% or 12% moisture content. The samples were then thermally aged for 25, 50, 75, and 100 days at 25, 50, 75, and 100°C. The decrease in adhesion strength of the varnish layers and the loss in surface gloss were determined in accordance with the ISO 4624 and ISO 2813 standards. The results of the study indicated that thermal ageing caused a decrease in the adhesion strength and gloss values.

Levoglucosan is one of the major polar compounds that can be initially extracted into an aqueous fraction with water as the solvent. Levoglucosan can be hydrolyzed by an acid catalysis into monomeric sugars (primarily glucose), which can be further converted biochemically into alcohols or lipids, or converted catalytically into hydrogen. It has been demonstrated that the levoglucosan yield can be greatly increased if the proper pretreatment is applied to demineralize the feedstock prior to pyrolysis. In this study, bio-oil with a high levoglucosan concentration was produced via the fast pyrolysis of a dilute acid pretreated loblolly pine wood in an auger reactor. The water-to-bio-oil ratio, temperature, and time were selected as the three parameters to investigate the optimal condition for extracting the maximum amount of levoglucosan from the bio-oil. A response surface design (Box Behnken Design) was utilized to determine the direct and interactive effects of the three parameters on the extraction yield of the levoglucosan from the bio-oil. The optimal condition for the levoglucosan extraction was found to be 1.3:1 (water-to-bio-oil ratio), 25 oC, and 20 min, with a levoglucosan yield of 12.7 wt%.

Thermal modification of wood in a hot-oil bath is a green process, which improves wood properties using natural products. The process imparts a uniform brown color to the wood and increases its dimensional stability. The improved properties create value-added opportunities for some wood species to be used for high performance applications such as flooring products. This study focused on the optimization of the oil-heat-treatment process to find different approaches for saving energy and also evaluating the performance of water-based coatings on oil-heat treated wood. Effects of process variables on development of wood drying defects such as, checking, cupping, crooking, bowing, twisting, and grain raise were evaluated. This included investigation of effects of Initial wood moisture content and delayed cooling of treated wood in an oven or under a thermal blanket. Our results showed that wood can be treated at an initial moisture content around 8 to 10 percent and cooled in a blanket instead of in an oven without increasing wood defects. Testing the performance of four commercially formulated water-based coatings on heat-treated wood showed that the coatings had an overall better color retention, abrasion, and scratch resistance on the heat-treated wood than on the untreated wood. However, the adhesion of all of the coatings was lower on the heat-treated wood when compared with untreated wood samples.

Cellulose nanocrystals were extracted from Agave angustifolia fibres by alkali and bleaching treatments followed by acid hydrolysis. The chemical composition of the Agave fibres was determined at different stages of chemical treatment. The structural analysis was carried out by a Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The morphology and thermal stability of the Agave fibres at different stages of chemical treatment were investigated by field emission scanning electron microscopy and thermogravimetric analysis, respectively. The results indicated that the hemicellulose and lignin were removed extensively from the extracted cellulose. The two peaks at 1735 cm-1 and 1247 cm-1, which were attributed to the C=O stretching and C-O out of plane stretching vibration of the hemicellulose and lignin in raw Agave, completely disappeared in the spectra of chemically treated fibres. The X-ray diffraction data showed enrichment in the portion of crystalline cellulose from 59% to 82% in the raw and cellulose nanocrystals, respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the thermal stability improved significantly by various chemical stages. The size reduction of the Agave cellulose into nano-sized particles from 7 µm to 8 nm in diameter by acid hydrolysis was confirmed with transmission electron microscopy images.

In this research, hornbeam chips were cooked under chemimechanical pulp (CMP) conditions, and the pulps were prepared at a yield level of 85%. The CMP pulps were separately bleached with hydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite with and without treatment with DTPA. Then 60 gr/m2 handsheets were made. The goal was to determine whether complementary bleaching with sodium dithionite improves optical behavior of the handsheets. Following DTPA solution spraying on the surface of hand sheets, brightness, opacity, and yellowness were improved, and the K/S ratio and PC number were decreased. Among different samples and following optical aging, it was found that in long-term aging, DTPA spray has considerable effect on improving the stability of brightness and increasing the paper’s durability against optical deterioration.

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is produced commercially in a two-stage process consisting of a mercerization stage followed by an etherification stage. In this work, extended mercerization stages were used when producing CMC from a spruce dissolving pulp. Near infra-red (NIR) Fourier transform (FT) Raman spectroscopy was used to analyse the molecular structures of the CMC and the gel fractions formed in the CMC preparation. Three different CMC groups were obtained, representing backbone structures of cellulose I, cellulose II, and amorphous cellulose. By applying principal component analyses (PCA) to the spectral data, two CMC classes were identified with different degrees of substitution (DS). Thus, a low degree of substitution was obtained in the CMC if the alkaline concentration in the mercerization stage was only 9.0%, and the backbone structure was cellulose I or II. However, if the alkaline concentration was higher (18.25% or 27.5%), then the degree of substitution in the CMC was also higher, and the backbone structure was more amorphous.

This study investigated several key mechanical and physical properties of oriented strand board (OSB) made from China fir strands impregnated with phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin. Results showed that accumulated percentages of strand alignment angles between strand length direction and mechanical alignment direction on OSB face and bottom layer were within 0° and 30° vs. 88.2% and 76.2%, respectively. Ultrasonic velocity at 0° strand angle (V0) was the highest, decreasing rapidly with increasing aligned angle (θ). The lowest ultrasonic velocity was found at 90° of strand’s angle (V90). The relationship between θ and V could be represented by Hankinson’s formula, where the optimal n exponential values were between 1.59 and 1.88. The anisotropic properties of the OSBs, defined as the ratio of V0/V90, were 2.23 to 2.45 for the bending specimens. The ratios of MORp/MORv and MOEp/MOEv were 3.79 to 4.15 and 4.18 to 5.42, respectively. Effects of PF-impregnation on the bending properties showed superior performance. The parallel bending strength (MORp) was 64.7 to 84.8 MPa and the MOEp was 13.0 to 15.9 GPa, respectively. After accelerated deterioration testing, the retention rates of MORp and MOEp (%) were 78.3% to 88.2% and 68.0 to 83.1%, respectively. Further, the dimensional stability of PF-impregnated OSB showed good performance in thickness swelling (TS) and linear expansion (LE).

Lignocellulosic biomass is a relatively inexpensive and abundant feedstock for biofuel production. The key to unlocking the recalcitrance of lignocelluloses is an effective pretreatment process. A promising new pretreatment method for lignocellulosic biomass is the use of ionic liquids (ILs). In this study, wood flour was partially dissolved in the novel ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium acesulfamate ([BMIM]Ace) mixed with different organic solvents (1,4-dioxane, acetone, methanol, DMSO, and DMF) followed by precipitation in water. Hemicelluloses were successfully extracted from the carbohydrate-enriched residues by an alkaline ethanol solvent. Sugar analysis of the hemicellulosic fractions indicated that xylose (63.25-74.85%) was the major sugar component, while small amounts of glucose (4.85-14.40%) and galactose (4.49-7.32%) were also observed. Molecular weights of these fractions varied between 49.330 and 60.760 g/mol as determined by GPC. NMR studies revealed that the hemicelluloses had a backbone of β-(1→4)-linked-D-xylopyranosyl units and were branched mainly through 4-O-methyl-α-D-glucuronic acid. The thermal degradation behavior of the hemicellulosic fractions showed that the most significant degradation occurred between 242 and 300 °C.

Longitudinal compression can help wood form some folds on the wood cell walls after a suitable softening procedure. These folds can enhance the one- and multi-dimensional bending performances of wood. The longitudinal compression properties of alkali-treated juvenile and mature northeast Chinese ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.) were analyzed. Elastic and elastic-plastic stages were inferred from the longitudinal compression curves. Scanning electron microscopy images showed that some folds formed in the wood cell wall vessels and fibers. X-ray microdensitometer test results showed a decrease in the fluctuation of the wood cell wall density of the specimens. The swelling and degradation or extraction of hemicellulose, lignin, and extractive occurred after alkaline treatment. Slippage between cellulose chains and curving within a cellulose chain were inferred during longitudinal compression. Juvenile wood specimens had higher modulus of elasticity and larger variability than mature wood after alkaline treatment. This finding can be attributed to the higher extent of degradation or extraction of hemicelluloses, lignin, and extractive, as well as the smaller microfibril angle and the similar cellulose crystallinity of treated juvenile wood compared to those of mature wood specimens after alkaline treatment.